THE BURDEN OF THE FUTURE: AN EXPLORATION OF THE AFTERMATH OF VIOLENT CONFLICT IN THE EASTERN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO (1996-2007) BY HERI MUGISHA DUNIA (209526636) A THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (PhD) POLITICAL SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU-NATAL, HOWARD COLLEGE CAMPUS, DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: DR MICHAEL FRANCIS CO-SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR SUZANNE FRANCIS 2019 DECLARATION I, Heri Mugisha Dunia, declare that: a) This is my original work, except where otherwise indicated. b) This thesis has not been submitted for examination at any given university. c) This thesis does not contain any other person’s data, pictures, graphs or other information, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other persons and referenced. d) This thesis does not contain other persons’ writing, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other researchers. e) Where other written sources have been quoted: - Their words have been re-written but the general information attributed to them has been referenced; - Where their exact words have been used, their writing has been placed inside quotation marks or indented, and referenced. Heri Mugisha Dunia Date Professor Suzanne Francis Dr Michael Francis Supervisor Co-Supervisor Date: Date: i DEDICATION To the Almighty God, for His indescribable mercy and patience in my regards; To all the victims of violence in the Democratic republic of Congo and else in the world; And To all of those who love peace. Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called sons of God (Matthew 5: 9). ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It would be a crime to pass unnoticed those who helped me to achieve this work. I am gratefully grateful to Jesus-Christ of Nazareth who saved my soul from the coming destruction and who has been carrying me and holding my hand in a manner that is invisible to naked eyes. Humanly speaking, my deep heart felt appreciation and gratitude are conveyed to my Supervisors, Professor Suzanne and Doctor Michael Francis for their valuable and considerable contribution in my academic life; first of from prior to and all along the writing up of this thesis. From the early days of the beginning of my Masters dissertation, Dr. Michael Francis and Professor Suzanne Francis have been living pillars of support in my academic trajectory. Professor Suzanne and Doctor Michael Francis have taken me under their wings and have carried me all along my academic endeavours. I have received total support from them on and off campus. They have provided work for me and have logistically, financially and academically supported my PhD. Professor Suzanne Francis mentored me on what concerns academic research, academic writing and academic teaching. Prof. Suzanne has gracefully supported my fieldwork and the writing up of this thesis. When I needed help or advice or when I urgently required a consultation, their doors have been open to me at any time. In short, the type of financial and logistic support and assistance that students used to get from their supervisors those days before the global economic meltdown of 2008 ad that is no longer available today, I was privileged to get it from Professor Suzanne and Dr. Michael Francis. What has humbled me about Prof. Suzanne and Dr. Michael Francis is their big heart in which there was enough room to take up students and house them in their own residence during the xenophobia attack of 2015. Contrary to many supervisors, the relation is limited on campus and should they be continued, they are still limited at the e-mail level. I have been personally blessed to be supervised by Professor Suzanne and Doctor Michael Francis. It is impossible for a student to not produce a quality work when such support is received from their supervisors. I urge those who are supervising students at any level of study, to follow the example of my supervisors, Prof. Suzanne and Michael Francis. iii I am grateful to the librarians at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, particularly to Claudette Kercival. My thanks are conveyed to all the administrators, and all those who have had a positive input in the process of the writing up of this thesis. I am grateful to all the communities where I have sojourned in the DRC in the Kabare District, in Lwiro, Katana and Mulungu. To Students at the Université du Cinquantenaire in Lwiro, researchers, lecturers and administrative personnel in the research centres; first at the Centre for Research in natural Science, the FOMULAC Reference Hospital and then at the National Institute for Agricultural and Agronomic Research in Mulungu. I am also grateful to my family in the DRC for taking me in and providing support to the best of their capabilities. The local Churches in those places have been very supportive in helping me in the fieldwork. The Local Churches in Durban have also been supportive through their prayers. It has been a teamwork without which I would never been able to finish alone this thesis. To all of them I convey a true word of gratitude and may God bless them. iv ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS ABAKO: Alliance des Bakongo (Bakongo Alliance). AFDL: Alliance des forces démocratiques pour la libération du Congo (Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo). ANC: Armée Nationale Congolaise (Congolese National Armed Forces). CRIAC: Centre de Recherche Industrielle en Afrique Centrale (Centre for Industrial Research in Central Africa). CRSN: Centre de Recherche en Sciences Naturelles (Natural Science Research Centre). CFS: Congo Free State (Etat Indépendant du Congo). CIA: Central Intelligence Agency. CNDP: Congrès national pour la défense du peuple (The National Congress for the Defence of the People). CNS: Conférence nationale souveraine (National Sovereign Conference). CIAT: Comité International d’Accompagnement à la Transition (International Commette for Assistance during Transition). DRC: Democratic Republic of Congo. EU: European Union. FAR: Forces Armées Rwandaises (Rwandese Armed Forces). FARD C: Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo Armed Forces). FAR: Forces Armees Rwandaises (Rwabdese Armed Fores). FDLR: Forces Démocratiques de Libération du Rwanda (Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda). v GDP: Gross Domestic Product. IDPs: internally displaced persons. IMF: International Monetary Fund (Fond Monétaire International). INGOs: International non-governmental Organisations. INS: Institut National de Statistique (National Institute for Statistics). INRA: Institut national de la recherche agronomique (INational Institute for Agronomic Research). IRSAC: Institut de Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (Institute for Scientific Research in Central Africa). MLC Mouvement de Libération du Congo (Movement for the Liberation of the Congo). MNC: Mouvement National Congolais (Congolese National Movement). MNC(s): Multinational corporation(s). MONUC: Mission de l’Organisation des Nations Unies en République Démocratique du Congo (United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo). MONUSCO: Mission de l’Organisation des Nations Unies pour la stabilisation en République démocratique du Congo (United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo). NGOs: Non-governmental organisations. NORD: National Office of Research and Development. ONUC: Organisaion des Nations Unies au Congo (United Nations Organisatin in te Congo). PPRD: Parti Pour La Reconstruction et le Développement (People’s Party for Reconstruction and Development). RCD: Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (Congolese Rally for Democracy). vi RPA: Rwandese Patriotic Army (Armée Patriotique Rwandaise). RPF: Rwandese Patriotic Front (Front Patriotique Rwandaise). UDPS: Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social (Union for Democracy and Social Progress). UK: United Kingdom. UN: United Nations. UNAMIR: United Nations Assistance Mission in Rwanda (Mission des Nations Unies pour l’Assistance au Rwanda). USA : United States of America vii ABSTRACT This study explores the aftermath of protracted social conflict in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) through a historical lense in the Kabare district, precisely in Mulungu, Lwiro and Katana where research centres are located. A qualitative research paradigm was used to determine the nature and extent of protracted violence on the economy and the society. The sampling area involved the three research centres along with their direct vicinities. One hundred in-depth interviews with three focus groups followed by participant observation were used in this study in order to generate rich data. Purposive sampling technique was used to identify relevant respondents to which a snowball sampling method was added to help reach more interviewees. The findings of this study reveal that the numerous crisis that the country has gone through from the Leopoldian era right to the present are explained by the pursuit of the 1885 Berlin Protocol. Here international powers agreed on using the Congo as a carrefour for international commerce to enlarge their markets as well as to advance their commercial agenda while simultaneously using it as a digging ground of raw material required to boost industries in the West at the cost of the blood, sweat and misery of the Congolese people. The state failures from the Congo Free State to the Democratic Republic of Congo, coupled with the protracted social conflict that seats the culture of violence within the structures, institutions as well as