LIVELIHOOD ACTIVITIES IN A WILDLIFE CONSERVANCY ON NAMIBIA’S KWANDO RIVER By WILLIAM J. KANAPAUX III A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2009 1 © 2009 William J. Kanapaux III 2 To my wife, Regina, for her love, encouragement, and support 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research was part of a larger collaborative project funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), the University of Florida and the International Union of the Conservation of Nature. I received additional NSF funding through an Integrative Graduate Education and Research Traineeship (IGERT) Program at UF on the Adaptive Management of Water, Wetlands and Watersheds. The Caprivi-based Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation, the Namibian Ministry of Environment and Tourism, and the management staff at Mashi Conservancy provided valuable assistance. In particular, I thank conservancy manager Joubert Muchaka, conservancy secretary Obey Lifumbela and Lucious Lunyandile for their assistance. My two research assistants, Elvis Wamui Diamani and Noricah Likeleli, played key roles in making this study possible. The field study was conducted in collaboration with professors and fellow graduate students from the University of Florida: Grenville Barnes, Michael Binford, Mark Brown, Brian Child, J.G. Collomb, Andrea Gaughan (with special thanks for help on the maps), Cerian Gibbes, Daniel Godwin, Patricia Mupeta, Narcisa Pricope, Luke Rostant, Jennie Saqui and Andrea Wolf. I also benefited from the knowledge, logistical help and comradery of Bennety Munyama, Adi Child, Graham Child, Chaka Chirozva, Rachel Demotts, Thatayaone Diane, Candace Diggle, Richard Diggle, Paul Leslie, Rodgers Lubilo, Johanna Mbandi, Shylock Muyengwa, Daisy Nheta, and Binah Seretse. Finally, I thank the staff and management of Namushasha Lodge for their accommodations and hospitality. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...............................................................................................................4 LIST OF TABLES ...........................................................................................................................7 LIST OF FIGURES .........................................................................................................................8 ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................................................9 CHAPTER 1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES ................................................................10 2 STUDY AREA .......................................................................................................................12 Physical Characteristics ..........................................................................................................13 Wildlife ...................................................................................................................................14 Human Population ..................................................................................................................16 Pre-Colonial History ...............................................................................................................17 Colonial Rule ..........................................................................................................................19 Conflict ...................................................................................................................................20 Economic Development ..........................................................................................................22 Role of Conservancies ............................................................................................................23 Mashi Conservancy ................................................................................................................26 3 DATA AND METHODS .......................................................................................................29 Development of Instrument ....................................................................................................29 Random Sampling ..................................................................................................................30 Application of Surveys ...........................................................................................................31 Statistical Analyses Used on Data ..........................................................................................33 4 RESULTS ...............................................................................................................................35 Differences in Livelihood Activities: Riverside vs. Interior ..................................................35 Food Security: Riverside vs. Interior ......................................................................................37 Differences in Land Use .........................................................................................................38 5 DISCUSSION .........................................................................................................................47 Livelihood Activities ..............................................................................................................47 Food Security ..........................................................................................................................48 Differences in Land Use .........................................................................................................50 5 6 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................53 APPENDIX A HOUSEHOLD LIVELIHOOD SURVEY .............................................................................58 B FIELD SURVEY ....................................................................................................................69 LIST OF REFERENCES ...............................................................................................................74 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .........................................................................................................79 6 LIST OF TABLES Table page 4-1 Demographic information for 60 households surveyed. ....................................................40 4-2 Percent of households growing crops in 2007. ..................................................................40 4-3 Test for differences in number of livelihood activities per household. .............................40 4-4 Proportion tests for food security: riverside vs. interior. ...................................................40 4-5 Test for differences in household agricultural practices. ...................................................41 4- 6 Proportion test for conservancy membership: riverside vs. interior. .................................41 6-1 Summary of key findings and management implications. .................................................57 7 LIST OF FIGURES Figure page 2-1 Location of study region. ...................................................................................................27 2-2 Map showing conservancies in Eastern Caprivi. ...............................................................27 2-3 Distribution of villages within Mashi Conservancy. .........................................................28 3-1 Location of surveyed households and soil types. ...............................................................34 4-1 Percent of Mashi households earning income from livelihood activities by location. ......42 4-2 Percent of Mashi households getting subsistence from livelihood activities. ...................42 4-3 Percent of Mashi households growing enough food per year by location. ........................43 4-4 Percent of riverside households growing enough food per year by soil type. ...................43 4-5 Percent of Mashi households growing enough food by location and soil type. ................44 4-6 Percent of households reporting crop raiders by species. ..................................................44 4-7 Percent of households growing crops by location. ............................................................45 4-8 Distance to field and field size for 10 households. ............................................................46 5-1 Percent of Mashi households owning assets by location. ..................................................52 6-1 Average annual income of Mashi households (N$ 7 = US $ 1). .......................................56 8 Abstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science LIVELIHOOD ACTIVITIES IN A WILDLIFE CONSERVANCY ON NAMIBIA’S KWANDO RIVER By William J. Kanapaux III May 2009 Chair: Brian Child Major: Geography We examined livelihood activities at the household level in a wildlife conservancy along the Kwando River in the Caprivi region of Namibia. It analyzes data from surveys collected in Mashi Conservancy, a community-based natural resource management program bordered on two sides by national parks. The conservancy is remote, economically undeveloped, and has a recovering wildlife population. Its people subsist primarily on rain-fed agriculture from sandy soils in a semi-arid, drought-prone environment. We asked how