DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2015-026 A Sociolinguistic Survey of the Bhumij People of India Troy Bailey and Loren Maggard A Sociolinguistic Survey of the Bhumij People of India Troy Bailey and Loren Maggard Researchers: Troy Bailey Marshal Joshua Loren Maggard Chacko Mathew M. S. Rajeev SIL International® 2015 SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2015-026, November 2015 © 2015 SIL International® All rights reserved. Abstract This sociolinguistic survey of the Bhumij people in the states of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal had as a goal to determine whether language development would be feasible in the languages of Bhumij and Mundari. Preliminary sociolinguistic research was carried out, and data collection took place between September and mid-December 1996. Language use patterns among the Bhumij were found to vary from region to region. In Bihar, the Bhumij speak Bhumij primarily in the home and family domains. In Orissa, it appears that in the northern part of Mayurbhanj district, the Bhumij are in the process of shifting to Oriya, while the Bhumij in the southern part of the district continue to speak Bhumij as the vernacular. In West Bengal, in only a few isolated spots do the people retain Bhumij as their mother tongue. The researchers found no indication of negative attitudes toward the Mundari people or language which might prevent the Bhumij from accepting Mundari literature. Consequently, it is recommended that a dialect adaptation for the Bhumij be considered low priority, and proposed that Mundari literature be utilised for the Bhumij-speaking community. Literacy rates among the Bhumij population are quite low (15%), although responses to the survey questionnaires appear to indicate a favourable attitude toward literacy. The choice of script is an important issue to be addressed. The maps in this report were created by author Troy Bailey. (This survey report, written some time ago, deserves to be made available even at this late date. Conditions were such that it could not be published when originally written. Thus, the reader is cautioned that more recent research may be available. However, even if available, historical data is quite valuable as it provides a basis for a longitudinal analysis, and at the same time helps us understand both the trajectory and the pace of change as compared with more recent studies.—Editor) Contents Preface 1 Introduction 1.1 People 1.1.1 Geography and population 1.1.2 Historical background 1.1.3 Society and culture 1.2 Language 1.2.1 Classification 1.2.2 Nomenclature 1.2.3 Key sources 1.2.4 Sociolinguistic aspects of Bhumij speech 1.2.5 Linguistic aspects of Bhumij speech 1.2.6 Relationship between Bhumij and Mundari 1.3 Previous survey 1.4 Purpose and goals 2 Linguistic aspects of Bhumij speech found in this survey 2.1 Lexical similarity comparison 2.1.1 Procedures 2.1.2 Site selection 2.1.3 Results and analysis 2.2 Intelligibility testing 2.2.1 Procedures 2.2.2 Site selection 2.2.3 Results and analysis 3 Social aspects of Bhumij speech found in this survey 3.1 Language use 3.1.1 Language use in Bihar 3.1.2 Language use in Orissa 3.1.3 Language use in West Bengal 3.2 Language attitudes 3.2.1 Attitudes toward the mother tongue 3.2.2 Attitudes toward Mundari 3.2.3 Receptivity toward language development 3.3 Bilingualism 4 Recommendations Appendix A Appendix B1 Appendix B2 Appendix B3 Appendix C Appendix D References iii iv Preface This sociolinguistic survey of the Bhumij people in the states of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal was sponsored by the Indian Institute for Cross Cultural Communication (IICCC). The primary interest of IICCC is in developing mother tongue literature and promoting literacy among the minority groups of India. To determine whether this type of work would be feasible in a particular language, preliminary sociolinguistic research is supported by the organisation. Data collection for this project took place between September and mid-December 1996. We are appreciative of the many Bhumij people who shared information about their society and language, answered questions, and participated in comprehension testing. The survey team trusts this sociolinguistic report accurately reflects our brief investigation and study among them. December 1996 Visakhapatnam, INDIA 1 Introduction 1.1 People 1.1.1 Geography and population The Bhumij people inhabit a three-state region in India – Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. The group is classified as a scheduled tribe in all three states (Singh 1993). According to the 1981 census, the Bhumij population in Bihar is 136,109, located primarily in the Ranchi, Paschim Singhbhum and Purba Singhbhum districts. In Orissa, the census returns give 157,614 Bhumij people (Singh 1994:170). About half of this total resides in Mayurbhanj district with smaller numbers in Balasore, Keonjhar and Sundargarh districts (Das Patnaik 1990:55). In West Bengal, 233,906 Bhumij individuals inhabit the districts of Medinapur, Purulia, Bankura and Twenty-four Parganas (Singh 1994:168). Adding these state-wide figures, the total Bhumij population amounts to approximately 528,000 people. It was found through previous documented research, as well as during the course of this investigation, that not all people who call themselves Bhumij speak Bhumij as their mother tongue, since language shift has occurred in several areas.1 Thus, no accurate information could be obtained for the number of Bhumij speakers, so the survey team gives the following estimated range of percentages in each state for Bhumij tribal people who speak Bhumij as their primary means of communication: Bihar, 80–90%; Orissa, 75–85%; and West Bengal, 15–25%. Much of the area that the Bhumij community inhabits is located in the Chotanagpur plateau, which rises an average of 2,000 feet above sea level (Dalton 1872:163). The region is home to several scheduled tribes such as the Munda, Ho and Santali. Maps 1 and 2 show the areas the Bhumij inhabit, and Map 3 indicates sites where data utilised for this survey was obtained. 1The Bhumij used here is referring to the speech variety found in the Munda language family. There were some language consultants in West Bengal who called their language “Bhumij,” but which was in their words, a mixture of non-standard Bengali and Oriya. 1 2 Map 1. India and states where Bhumij reside 3 Map 2. Concentration of Bhumij 4 Map 3. Survey data collection points 5 1.1.2 Historical background The term Bhumij means ‘children of the soil’ (Dalton 1872:173), which likely was given to the community by Hindu immigrants who found them occupying the land in what is today West Bengal (Risley 1891, reprinted in 1981:118). Roy (1929:96) writes that Bhumijes in Mayurbhanj district of Orissa maintain are not the original settlers of that area, but instead came from Tamar Pargana in Ranchi district of Bihar, and are thus known as Tamarias, Tamaria Mundas or Tamaria Bhumijes. A verbal account given by a person in West Bengal, which seems plausible, though not confirmed by any written sources available to the researchers, explains the history of the Bhumij during the period of the British occupation. While the British held power in east India, they imposed a system of collecting taxes from settlers of the land. At first, Brahmins were appointed to collect these taxes, but this did not prove to be effective. The British then appointed people who could secure taxes by force. At that time, the Bhumij were the most assertive out of all other groups, and were therefore commissioned by the British to this role. To obtain respect and compliance from other tribal and caste groups, the Bhumij began to adopt the culture and language of the higher caste Brahmin Bengalis as well as the British. As they related with these classes of people, it had an impact on their society, culture and language with the result that the Bhumij in several areas gave up their traditional mother tongue for Bengali. 1.1.3 Society and culture The Bhumij are mostly agricultural workers and cultivators. If they possess their own land, they grow rice as well as oil seeds, pulses and vegetables. After harvest in November and December, when there is no other work, the males labour in the mining quarries of southern Bihar and northern Orissa, as well as in the tea gardens of Assam. Hunting used to be a profitable profession, but due to deforestation and government restrictions this is no longer followed. Bhumij families are patrilineal, and most of them are nuclear, though extended families also exist. Polygyny occurs occasionally, particularly among the wealthier families, with the main reason being the barrenness of the first wife. Divorce is permitted only in cases of adultery by the woman (Das Patnaik 1990:57–58). The Bhumij are essentially animistic in their religious outlook, and the sun is their primary object of worship. They also serve a number of minor gods and spirits to which they sacrifice animals. In addition, the Bhumij believe in the power of white and black magic, consulting witch doctors found in the village. In addition, the community in various places has adopted Hindu beliefs and practices into their religion. People offer coconuts, plantains and sweetmeats to the gods, and visit Kali and Shiva temples during Hindu festivals (Das Patnaik 1990:59–60). The total literacy rate among the Bhumij population is about 15%, ranging from 12% in Orissa, to 15% in West Bengal, and 16% in Bihar. For males, the literacy rate is about one-quarter and for females only 4% (Singh 1994:169–171). 1.2 Language The Munda languages have received a great deal of attention by linguists over the past two centuries, particularly with regard to their status in the Austro-Asiatic language family, as well as to the historical relationships within the various Munda language groups.