The Ecology and Behaviour of Giraffe in Northern Botswana Kylie N. McQualter Centre for Ecosystem Science School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences University of New South Wales Australia A Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy within the University of New South Wales January 2018 THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Thesis/Dissertation Sheet Surname or Family name: McQualter First name: Kylie Other name/s Nicole Abbreviation for degree as given in the University calendar: PhD School: School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Faculty: Science Sciences Title: The Ecology and Behavior of Giraffe in Northern Botswana Abstract Northern Botswana is one of the giraffe strongholds across its geographic range in the absence of, or with low impact from, the major anthropological threats faced elsewhere. Yet despite its conservation significance, until now, no giraffe- specific ecological or behavioural studies have been undertaken. Moreover, Africa’s giraffe population has been significantly reduced over the last two decades, and the pressure on giraffe habitats and populations is likely to increase as the human population continues to expand, and the effects of climate change take their toll. As such, it is important to establish an ecological and behavioural baseline for giraffe in the unique ecosystems. This study provides baseline data on the behaviour and ecology of giraffe in the dry savannah and woodlands of the northern Chobe region and the wetland system of the Okavango Delta (NG26) in northern Botswana. The study first examines the home ranges, seasonal ranges and daily movements of giraffe in the two study areas. Next, the focus is on giraffe behaviours and activity budgets, and the effect of site, sex, season and time of day on behaviour. Lastly, the study describes the giraffe social grouping patterns in Chobe and examines non-random associations and spatial overlap as possible factors driving the population’s underlying fission-fusion system. Ecological and behavioural similarities were observed between the study areas, but also vast differences reflecting the adaptations made by giraffe in response to the unique set of environmental factors they face. Home ranges and daily movements were larger in Chobe where forage is more limited and patchily distributed, and ranges were larger during the dry season. Habitat, season, and sex were all found to be influential factors contributing to the observed variation in giraffe activity budgets. Social analyses revealed a complex social organisation whereby non-random associations and spatial overlap are drivers of a structured social network found within a fluid fission-fusion social system. Variation in pairwise association strengths and ranging patterns between the sexes suggest that males and females socialise differently. Association strength was generally greater for females than males though both sexes appeared to have preferred and avoided associates, indicating non-random groupings of individuals. Pairwise association strengths appear to be influenced more by social preferences and avoidances than spatial overlap, and shared space use has a greater influence over female social groupings. Declaration relating to disposition of project thesis/dissertation I hereby grant to the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or in part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all property rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstracts International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). ……………………………………… ………………………………………. ………………………………………… Signature Witness Date The University recognises that there may be exceptional circumstances requiring restrictions on copying or conditions on use. Requests for restriction for a period of up to 2 years must be made in writing. Requests for a longer period of restriction may be considered in exceptional circumstances and require the approval of the Dean of Graduate Research. FOR OFFICE USE ONLY Date of completion of requirements for Award i ORIGINALITY STATEMENT ‘I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project's design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.’ Signed Date …..……………… ii COPYRIGHT STATEMENT ‘I hereby grant the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all proprietary rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstract International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). I have either used no substantial portions of copyright material in my thesis or I have obtained permission to use copyright material; where permission has not been granted I have applied/will apply for a partial restriction of the digital copy of my thesis or dissertation.' Signed ……………………………………………........................... Date ……………………………………………........................... AUTHENTICITY STATEMENT ‘I certify that the Library deposit digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final officially approved version of my thesis. No emendation of content has occurred and if there are any minor variations in formatting, they are the result of the conversion to digital format.’ Signed ……………………………………………........................... Date ……………………………………………........................... I dedicate this thesis to my parents, Dawn and Peter, who have done so much for me throughout my life and have never stopped believing in me. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would first like to express my sincerest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Keith Leggett, for his continuous advice, support and encouragement throughout the years; for his patience when my chapter drafts were slow coming and communication occasionally lacking; for always having time for me; and for saying the right things when I was at risk of becoming completely overwhelmed. Thanks go to my co-supervisor, Dr. Julian Fennessy for setting me up with a giraffe project in the first place; for all his thorough editing and advice, and for letting me take part in genetic sampling field trips which were not only important for giraffe conservation, but were super fun too. I would like to give a huge thank you to Dr. Mike Chase and Kelly Landen from Elephants Without Borders who welcomed me into the team. They sorted out all the logistics for me to study giraffe in Botswana, obtained funding for various aspects of my research, shared their data with me, and let me stay in their beautiful research camp in the Okavango Delta, all for which I am eternally grateful. They also gave me incredible opportunities to participate in various field projects from wildlife collaring to aerial surveys which made my time in Botswana all the more memorable. Thank you to the Paul G. Allen Family Foundation, Harry and Colleen Ferguson, and Cornelia Bargmann for their financial support, and to the Botswana Government, Department of Wildlife and National Parks, University of New South Wales and Giraffe Conservation Foundation for their general support throughout the project. Thanks also goes to all those involved in the collaring exercises, Larry Patterson for his veterinary expertise; Andrew Baker, Peter Perlstein and Mike Holding for piloting the helicopters and light-weight plane; all iv those in the ground capture teams; and Africa Wildlife Tracking for supplying the collars. A special thank you to Tempe Adams who joined me on this great African adventure to study Botswana’s elephants. Always cheerful and always there for support. To Rodney Massey, Stephanie Fennessy and Leanne Van der Weyde who didn’t mind watching giraffe for hours on end while I recorded giraffe behaviour, thank you for your company and help in photographing giraffe. Thanks also to Lyn Francey and Mark Vandewalle for your friendship and help with plant identification. A special thank you to Andy Tutchings whose friendship and support meant so much, and whose promotion of the project was greatly appreciated. To the ever so clever Kim Young, Kerryn Carter, Neil Jordon, Clare Runge and Steve McLeod, who were ever so helpful and patient in getting me through my statistical analyses, thank you so much, I would never have got there without you! To my new found Kasane friends who were always ready for a drink (or ten!) at The Old House or Thebe, a scrumptious feast at Pizza Plus Coffee and Curry, or sundowners on the river, thanks for all the stories, laughs, and good times. Thanks also to the Abu and Seba managers in NG26 who occasionally spoiled me with their chef-prepared, leftover food, when tinned food had lost its appeal. Last but not least, thanks to my long-time friends who are forever supportive; and to my parents, Dawn and Peter, for their continued love, support and encouragement throughout my academic life, and life in general, even when my obsession with Africa and its wildlife takes me to the other side of the world for extended periods.