OUTLINE OF MAJOR EVENTS IN ROMAN HISTORY Rome was founded April 21, 753 B.C. accord- ing to long tradition. 753 B.C. - 509 B.C. Monarchy of seven kings 509 B.C. - 27 B.C. Republic ruled by two consuls 27 B.C. - 476 A.D. Rome ruled by emperors The Seven hills of Rome: Aventine, Palatine, Esquiline, Capitoline, Quirinal, Viminal, Caelian The Tiber River flows among the hills, southwest toward the port city of Ostia. The Age of Kings 753 B.C. - 509 B.C. Romulus: Deified name Quirinus; murdered his brother Remus when he mocked the trench and wall (pomerium) Romulus was building; established the asylum, offering sanctuary to persons displaced or exiled, in order to increase settlement’s population. Numa Pompilius: Sabine king, very religious, established many laws and customs, made first 10-month calendar; advised by his wife Tatia, who was taught by the nymph Egeria. Tullus Hostilius: Hostile king; engaged in battle with Alba Longa; triplet brothers Horatii (Romans) and Curiatii (Albans) fought; Horatii won; sole survivor Horatius killed sister Horatia because she mourned the death of a Curiatius; Tullus was killed by lightning when he defied the gods. Ancus Martius: Sabine king, Numa’s grandson; built the first wooden bridge over the Tiber River; founded Ostia, Rome’s seaport; annexed the Aventine Hill, and settled plebeians there. Tarquinius Priscus: Built the first circus, instituted Roman games and triumphs (military victory parades), built the Cloaca Maxima (sewer system); assassinated by the sons of Ancus Martius. Servius Tullius: Took the first census; annexed Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline hills. Tarquinius Superbus: Proud and arrogant; Brutus and Collatinus led a popular rebellion against him and in 509 B.C. became the first two consuls of the Republic. The Age of the Republic 509 B.C. - 27 B.C. Lucius Junius Brutus and Collatinus were the first consuls.Tarquinius Superbus enlisted Etruscan king Lars Porsenna to help him to attempt to regain power in Rome; he was unsuccessful. 496 Rome engaged in the Battle of Lake Regillus against the Latins; marked by the appearance of the gods Castor and Pollux (Gemini). 494 Office of tribune created, to provide representation of the plebeian, or “lower” class. 458 Cincinnatus became the first to invoke emergency power of dictator following incursion of outlying tribes; when the emergency passed, he relinquished the dictatorship. 451-450 Twelve Tables of the Law compiled by the decemviri. 449 The number of tribunes was increased from two to ten. 445 Lex Canuleia passed, allowing inter- marriage between patricians and plebeians. 390 The Gauls defeated the Romans in battle. 264-241 The First Punic War between Rome and the North African empire of Carthage. (The Romans called the Carthaginians the Poeni, because Carthage was colonized by the Phoenicians.) 234 Birth of Marcus Porcius Cato (Cato the Elder), the Censor who would later exclaim “Karthago delenda est” in the senate. 219-202 Second Punic War. 217 Battle of Lake Trasimene, first major battle; Romans were defeated; Q. Fabius Maximus Cunctator (“the Delayer”) named dictator; 216 Battle of Cannae, significant defeat for the Romans; the consul Varro was killed; 202 Battle of Zama, in North Africa; Roman general Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal. 180 Lex Villia Annalis passed, setting minimum ages for offices of the cursus honorum. 153 Consuls assumed office on Kalends of January. 149 Death of Cato the Elder, three years before the destruction of Karthage. 149-146 Third Punic War. 146 Carthage destroyed by Rome; Rome also seized Corinth and took control of Greece. 135-132 First Servile War waged in Sicily. 133 Tribune Tiberius Gracchus murdered by mob led by patricians opposed to his radical land reforms. 121 Gaius Gracchus, brother of Tiberius, also killed; his death resulted from the first-ever application of the senatus consultum ultimum (“extreme decree of the senate”). 118-104 The Jugurthine War; the Roman general Marius defeated the eastern king Jugurtha. 107; 104-100;86 Marius served as consul an unprecedented seven times; allowed subsequent powerful leaders leeway to skirt laws and traditions of Republican government. 106 Birth of Marcus Tullius Cicero. 104 Second Servile War waged in Sicily. 100 Birth of Gaius Julius Caesar. 90 Lex Julia passed offering citizenship to allies that had not fought against Rome in the social wars. 89 Lex Plautia Papiria passed, offering citizenship to allies who had previously fought against Rome; it was introduced by a Tribune of the Plebs. 84 The poet Catullus was born. 82 Sulla “Felix” defeated the followers of Marius and took control of Rome. 82-79 Sulla held the dictatorship; he extensively reorganized the Roman government, and reset minimal ages to offices in the cursus honorum. 73-71 Spartacus’ slave revolt put down by Pompey and Crassus. 70 and 55 Pompey and Crassus served as consuls together. 70 The poet Vergil was born. 67 Lex Gabinia introduced by a Tribune, granting Pompey vast power against the pirates of the Mediterranean. 65 The poet Horace was born. 63 Catilinarian conspiracy; Lucius Catilina and associates plotted to overthrow the government and murder the leadership; Cicero needed to deliver only the first of four prepared speeches to the senate; conspirators fled Rome. 63 Octavian (later Augustus) was born. 62 Defeat and death of Catiline. 60 First Triumvirate; Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus struck agreement at Luca. 59 Consulship of Caesar and Bibulus, known as the “consulship of Julius and Caesar” due to Bibulus’ weakness. 58-51 Caesar waged campaigns in Gaul; extended term of governorship; ultimately he was granted emergency control of all three Gallic provinces. 58 Publius Clodius Pulcher exiled Cicero. 56 First Triumvirate reaffirmed at Luca. 54 The poet Catullus died. 53 Battle of Carrhae; Crassus killed by Parthians. 52 Vercingetorix defeated Caesar at Gergovia; Caesar defeated Vercingetorix at Alesia. Pompey served as sole consul. 50 Pompey was asked to save the state; Tribunes left Rome. 49-45 Civil War 49 Caesar crossed Rubicon River, bringing his army into Italy and declaring war against the state; 48 Pompey defeated Caesar in Dyrrhachium; Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalus; Pompey fled into Egypt; and was beheaded; 45 Caesar defeated the sons of Pompey in Spain. 44 Julius Caesar murdered in conspiracy of senators led by Brutus and Cassius; Caesar’s will provided for the adoption of Octavian as his son and heir; Marc Antony became second consul. 43 Cicero was killed at the order of Antony and possibly Octavian; the Second Triumvirate was formed by Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian; legalized by Lex Titia; the poet Ovid was born. 42 Antony and Octavian defeated Caesar’s assassins Brutus and Cassius. 37 Second Triumvirate reaffirmed; Antony and Cleopatra married in Egypt. 31 Octavian and Agrippa defeated Antony and Cleopatra in naval engagement near Actium in Greece. 29 Dedication of Temple of Divus Julius on the site of Caesar’s cremation in Forum Romanum; rostra from ships defeated at Actium affixed to foundation wall. The Early Empire 27 Motion made to confer title “Augustus” (“revered”) on Octavian. 19 The poet Vergil died; Augustus dis- regarded Vergil’s instructions to burn the unfinished Aeneid. 17 Augustus adopted his grandsons, Gaius and Lucius Caesar, making them potential heirs. 13 Death of Lepidus; Augustus was sole surviving triumvir. 12 Augustus became Pontifex Maximus; death of Marcus Agrippa, Augustus’ admiral, friend, and possible heir. 8 Deaths of the poet Horace and the literary patron Maecenas. 2 Augustus was granted the title pater patriae; Augustus banished his daughter Julia from Rome for moral turpitude. 2 Death of Lucius Caesar. 4 Death of Gaius Caesar. 8 Ovid banished to Tomi by Augustus for “carmen et error” (Ars Amatoria, and possible improper involvement with, or influence on, Julia, Augustus’ daughter). 14 Augustus Caesar died, possibly by poisoning at the hands of Livia, his wife; he was without direct heir. 17 The poet Ovid died, without having been allowed to return to Rome. 19 Death of Germanicus, Augustus’ stepson and presumed heir; Germanicus’ brother Tiberius became emperor. Julio-Claudian Dynasty 27 B.C.-68 A.D. Augustus 27 B.C.-14 A.D. Tiberius 14-37 Caligula 37-41 Claudius 41-54 Nero 54-68 The Republican Cursus Honorum Tribune of the Plebs Annually elected by the plebeian section of the Assembly of the Tribes (Comitia Tributa), known as the Concilium Plebis, there were originally two, but by 449 there were ten. The person of the tribune was sacrosanct and he could veto anyone, except a dictator, including another tribune. The office, an alternative to ten years’ service in the cavalry, was often attained through nepotism, a practice accepted and commonly employed. Quaestor The first position in the cursus was Quaestor, whose term was a year. Originally there were two Quaestors, but the number was increased to 4 in 421 and then to 6 in 267, and then to 8 in 227. In 81, the number was increased to 20. They were selected by the Assembly of the 35 tribes, the Comitia Tributa. Quaestors supervised the treasury and the financial affairs of the state, the army, and the military officers. Aedile Two Plebeian Aediles were chosen each year by the Concilium Plebis and two Curule Aediles were picked annually by the Assembly of the 35 tribes, the Comitia Tributa. It was not necessary to be an aedile while following the cursus honorum. Aediles saw to the maintenance of public buildings, the oversight of public festivals, and the enforcement of public order. Praetor Elected by the Assembly of the Centuries, the Comitia Centuriata, the (originally) two Praetors held office for a year. The number increased to 4 in 227; and then to 6 in 197.