Drone Technopolitics: A History of Race and Intrusion on the U.S.-Mexico Border, 1948-2016 by Iván Chaar-López A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (American Culture) in the University of Michigan 2018 Doctoral Committee: Professor Lisa Nakamura, Co-Chair Professor Alexandra Minna Stern, Co-Chair Associate Professor John Cheney-Lippold Professor Paul N. Edwards Iván Chaar-López [email protected] ORCID iD: 0000-0003-4731-6013 © Iván Chaar-López 2018 DEDICATION To Yiyi and all those who steadfastly struggle to build a different kind of world. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The pages that follow would never have been possible without the contributions and support of many people. They were present during those moments of potential, excitement, and difficulty in the research and writing process. And for all their time, thoughtfulness, work and kindness I will forever be grateful. Research for this dissertation relied on the support of various people and organizations. Archivists and librarians at the Library of Congress, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services History Library, the San Diego Air & Space Museum, and the Seattle Public Library shared their breadth of knowledge about their research materials. They also suggested new and unexpected avenues of inquiry. Catherine Morse and Alexa Pearce at the University of Michigan Library were instrumental in identifying primary source sites to explore for the project. Funding support was obtained from the Rackham Graduate School and the Department of American Culture at the University of Michigan, the John W. Kluge Center at the Library of Congress, and from my mentor and dissertation co-chair, Lisa Nakamura. Oral history interviews would not have been possible if not for the help of Ricardo Dominguez, David González-Hernández, and Juan Manuel Avalos. I also want to thank my oral history interlocutors for sharing their stories and their time with me: Guillermo Alonso Meneses, Geoff Boyce, Sergio Chavez, Víctor de la Fuente, Ricardo Dominguez, Fran Ilich, Gilberto Martínez, Ian Alan Paul, Julio M. Romero, and Olivia Ruiz. Matthew Baker, Josh T. Franco, Anna T. Browne Ribeiro, Kate Luongo, Daniel B. Rood, Gregg iii Jones, and the Penya Barcelonista Washington, D.C. (¡Visca Barça!) made my time doing research in D.C. a memorable experience. Throughout my doctoral studies at the University of Michigan, I have been fortunate to learn from and collaborate with a wide range of brilliant scholars. Across our myriad exchanges, from workshop or class meetings to more informal hallway conversations, faculty in the Department of American Culture and across campus fostered a vibrant community: Evelyn Alsultany, Megan Ankerson, Stephen Berrey, William Calvo-Quirós, Amy Sara Carroll, Maria Cotera, Matthew Countryman, Manan Desai, Jason De León, Gregory Dowd, Geoff Eley, Colin Gunckel, Kristin Hass, Jesse Hoffnung-Garskof, Larry La Fountain-Stokes, Matt Lassiter, Anthony P. Mora, Yeidy Rivero, Christian Sandvig, Rebecca J. Scott, Matt Stiffler, and Magdalena Zaborowska. Spending time with the members of the Precarity Lab always left me thrilled and intellectually stimulated: Irina Aristarkhova, Anna Watkins Fisher, Tung Hui-Hu, Meryem Kamil, Cindy Lin, Silvia Lindtner, and Lisa Nakamura (our P.I.). Jesse guided me in my first years of the PhD and always paid attention to my and my partner’s wellbeing. Anthony inspired me to do research on the southern U.S. borderlands and taught me about the exciting intricacies of archival research. Larry was my mentor from day 1 and he continues to offer me his sage advice, but, most of all, I feel incredibly grateful to have in him an honest friend. Let the memorable food adventures continue! Amy taught me to listen to the rumble of the borderlands and to trace its syncopated rhythms. She and Ricardo introduced me to the fascinating world of border art and also taught me about the importance of radical pedagogy. My dissertation committee (John Cheney-Lippold, Paul N. Edwards, Lisa Nakamura, and Alexandra Minna Stern) offered guidance and insight as I embarked on my research project. They kept me grounded, even when I followed ideas through rabbit holes. John was always iv willing to be a sounding board for rough ideas and he provided attentive feedback on works in progress. It also helped that we shared the love of fútbol and the we both supported Boca. Whenever I met with Paul, I left feeling more excited about the work I was doing. I’m grateful for his insistence on self-reflexivity. Lisa and Alex are among the most generous and thoughtful scholars I know. They taught me so much about writing, doing research, the world of academia, and the importance of solidarity. I feel incredibly lucky and honored to have counted on them both as mentors and advisors. Navigating my time at Michigan would not have been possible without the careful and uplifting exchanges with the American Culture staff: Mary Freiman, Judy Gray, Marlene Moore, Hannah Yung, and Tammy Zill. They always knew where to go or who to ask when I was in need of help. But more importantly, they raised my spirits whenever I was down. I would not have made it through my degree without the camaraderie, intellectual stimulus and emotional uplift of colleagues and friends in Ann Arbor. My cohort mates (Stefan Aune, Sophie Cooper, Joo Young Lee, Rachel Miller, and Stephen Molldrem) provided an initial space of support as we all struggled with coursework and later on with dissertation research. Thank you to my writing buddies: Sony Coráñez Bolton, Arcelia Gutierrez, Meryem, Joo Young, Orquidea Morales, Kyera Singleton, ToniAnn Treviño, and Vivian Truong. Cass Adair, Katie Lennard, Kyera, Mejdulene B. Shomali, Orquidea, and Sony were also generous and insightful mentors who shared their wisdom about how to best survive graduate school. How would I have written my dissertation without the loving wit and sarcasm of Orquidea and Meryem, I have no idea. As we progressed through our graduate programs, I learned so much about unauthorized migration in Mexico and the U.S. from John Doering-White. I cherished the company and collegiality of Maryam Aziz, Joseph Deleon, Nicole Hentrich, Irene Inatty, Peggy Lee, Richard v Mwakasege-Minaya, Pau Nava, Michael Pascual, Dimitri Pavlounis, and Megan Rim. My life in graduate school was equally enriched by participating in collaborative spaces constituted by graduate students and faculty: the American History Workshop, the Border Collective, the Critical Intersectionality Interdisciplinary Workshop, the Deleuze Interest Group, the Digital Inequality Lab, the Digital Studies Workshop, the Latinx Studies Workshop, the Marxisms Collective, the STS Workshop, and the Violence Working Group. Emma Amador has been such an inspiration as a scholar and friend long before I made it to Michigan. Érika Almenara, Vanessa Cruz Nichols, Mara Pastor and Rachel Ten Haaf helped my partner and I immediately feel as part of a community when we moved to Ann Arbor. Maximillian Alvarez was an inspiring colleague but I especially appreciate the breadth of our conversations from media archaeology to our ongoing sporting feuds—except for our wonderful Cubs. The “Catan” crew (Gabriel Jones, Frania Mendoza Lúa, Jaime Muñoz-Velazquez) was an important group for fun, games, delicious food, and inspiration—even when Gabe always took too long during his turns. Thank you as well to Dr. Giovanni Minonne. The enduring encouragement of mentors and friends in Puerto Rico and elsewhere gave me the energy to finish my PhD. Mayra Rosario Urrutia, from whom I learned about discipline and power while a History student at the University of Puerto Rico, cheered me on. Her messages of inspiration always reached me just when I needed them. I would never have written about military technology in a supposedly non-military context without the training and intellectual impetus of Manuel Rodríguez. Carlos Pabón has been a major source of critical and innovative thought for me. He taught me to love History not for what it is but for what it could be. María del Carmen Baerga introduced me to Latin American colonial history from below and beyond the dominant paradigm of the grand figures. From her I have learned how to read the vi archive both along and against the grain. As neoliberal reforms intensified in the colonial territory of Puerto Rico in 2009, I was moved by the unshakeable vision for a radical democracy and a university without condition of: Xiomara Caro, Érika Fontánez, Lena Galíndez, Hiram Guadalupe Pérez, Rígel Lugo, Laura Náter, Mara Negrón, Ricardo Olivero Lora, Rubén Ríos Ávila, Giovanni Roberto, Mabel Rodríguez Centeno, Anayra Santory Jorge, Bernat Tort, Eduardo Valsega, Marta I. Vélez Álvarez, and Abner Yarib. Long before I thought of studying History, Juan Correa was there to teach me about music and discipline. Though I am no longer pursuing a career as a musician, he remains with me when I sit down to write. I also want to express my gratitude for el cariño de Darío Collazo, Tania Colón, Rafael Díaz-Torres, José I. Fusté, Sofía Gallisá, Ruth García Pantaleón, Adriana Garriga López, Gustavo Gastelum, Marissel Hernández-Romero, Thelma Jiménez Anglada, Dorian López León, Mario Negrón, Gustavo Quintero, Beatriz E. Ramírez Betances, and Rafael “el Buk” Texidor. Pablo Saracho, Verónica Muñiz, and Viviana Torres-Rivera are not just friends, but my family. They knew the ups and downs, and they were there for it all. Lxs amo, queridxs. My familia futbolera in Fuller Park, Ann Arbor kept me sane while I wrote the dissertation. The pitch there was truly a transnational sanctuary where we all bonded by creating a beautiful community. There I met the wonderfully smart Tara Weinberg with whom I share many defensive joys on the pitch and many stories off of it. Thank you, Tara, for your kindness, care, and friendship.