THE WHEEL OF FORTUNE IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FRANCE: THE LOTTERY, CONSUMPTION, AND POLITCS by Robert D. Kruckeberg A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillement of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (History) in The University of Michigan 2009 Doctoral Committee: Professor Dena Goodman, Chair Professor David J. Hancock Professor Michael P. MacDonald Professor Susan L. Siegfried Acknowledgments My greatest general debt is owed to the University of Michigan and its Department of History. Both the university and department have been very generous in funding my graduate work. Besides financial support, they also encourage excellence in scholarship through the many models so readily supplied there and always in an encouraging and collaborative manner. I consider myself very lucky to have been a part of such a wonderful institution, and I thank the university and department for all of their support, financial and intellectual. At a place filled with so many great scholarly role models, Dena Goodman, my advisor, stands outs and I owe her a great debt and my sincere gratitude. Dena has been the best possible mentor for whom a young scholar could ask. In the genre of dissertation acknowledgements, many people often refer to the intellectual rigor of their advisor, but that would do Dena a great injustice. It is not intellectual rigor but intellectual verve that best characterizes her. It is her incredible verve and creativity that is at the center of her intellectual dynamism and inspiration. Dena also always knew the right balance between stern and compassionate encouragement. Regardless, she was always encouraging. I owe her a debt that I am incapable of repaying. I had a great group of diverse scholars who helped me through both the dissertation writing process and the larger graduate school process. David Hancock never let me forget that history and its subjects were real with real lived experiences, not ii simply theory written by historians. Anyone who has worked with David knows to be prepared for many “so what?” questions. Michael MacDonald provided an excellent model of wide ranging intellectual interest. I left his office many times in complete awe of his mind and his grasp of a wide array of historical scholarship. Michael’s colorful personality has also provided many fond memories. Finally, I need to thank Susan Siegfied who forced me to take visual culture seriously as a matter of analysis rather than mere example. The Department of History at the University of Michigan is a crucible of intellectual creativity, engagement, and collegiality. A big part of that is the amazing graduate students whom I have been lucky enough to call friends. There are too many to list, yet I do feel compelled to list some by name. Katie Cangany, Tamar Carroll, Jennifer Palmer, and Saskia Coenen-Snyder were all members of our Supper Club, which quickly turned into a venue to read chapter drafts, practice job talks, and general moral support as well as a good meal. They also are responsible for improving my culinary self-sufficiency, which was no small task. I was lucky enough to have entered Michigan at the same time as two other historians of eighteenth-century France: Ji Li and Jennifer Palmer. Ji and Jennifer enhanced my experience at Michigan in innumerable ways. I owe a particular debt to Jennifer who will no doubt continue to be a source of academic and intellectual support for the rest of my career as well as a very dear friend. Wojciech Beltkiewicz and Sheree Brown provided many nights of fun and necessary escape from the intellectual toil of academic life. And many nights were spent rethinking the eighteenth century with James Dator who forced me to articulate my ideas more clearly if for no other reason than to make them understandable to him. He also challenged me to iii think about the earlier part of the century as well as the larger British and Atlantic context of the eighteenth-century world. The great friends I have made at Michigan made my time in Ann Arbor some of the most enjoyable years of my life, and I thank all of them, named and unnamed. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………..ii List of Images………………………………………………………………………..…..vii List of Tables……………………………………………………………………..………ix List of Graphs……………………………………………………………………………..x List of Appendices……………………………………………………………….……….xi List of Abbreviations………………………………………………………………...…..xii Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………………………………………1 Political Culture and the New Economic History…………………………………...…8 Chapter Overview…………………………………………………………………….22 Chapter 2: Les Trois Petites Loteries: Between Christian Charity and Fiscal Expediency……………………………………………………………………………….28 The Rise and Expansion of the Trois Petites Loteries…………………………..........33 The “Great Altercation” between the Trois Petites Loteries and the Comédie……....40 Growth and Disruption: Building Sainte-Geneviève………………………………....55 The Loterie de l’Hôtel de Ville de Paris and the Challenge to the Trois Loteries……66 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………86 Chapter 3: The Loterie de l’École Royale Militaire: Making the Lottery Noble, Patriotic, and National……………………………………………………………………………...95 Rousseau and the Noblesse Commerçante…………………………………………...97 Military Reform, the École Royale Militaire, and Casanova………………………..103 Between Casanova and Rousseau: Defending the Loterie de l’École Militaire…….115 Establishing the Lottery: Between Royal Majesty and the Consumer……………...121 Building the Lottery…………………………………………………………………130 Ending the Lottery…………………………………………………………………..147 Chapter 4: The Royal Lottery and the Apotheosis of the Consuming Public…………..155 Turgot, Necker, and Public Finance……………………………………………...…158 Early Ideas for Consolidating the Lottery System………………………………..…166 Founding the Royal Lottery: Satisfying the Consuming Public and Its Taste……....171 v Indemnifying the Suppressed Lotteries……………………………………..………176 Outlining the Lottery Bureaucracy: Reassuring and Enticing Consumers………….180 The Administration and Success of the Royal Lottery…………………………...…189 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..198 Chapter 5: The French Revolution and the Royal Lottery……………………………..204 Financial Innovation, the Royal Lottery, and the Monarchy………………………..205 The Fiscal Crisis and Regeneration, 1787-1789………………………………….…218 Could the Royal Lottery Be Made Revolutionary?....................................................230 Between Patriotism and Criminality………………………………………………...241 Sans-Culottes, the National Convention, and Suppression………………………….250 Conclusion…………………………………………………………..………………260 Chapter 6: Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..264 Appendices………………………………………………………………………….…..271 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………...…….274 vi List of Images Image 1.1: Almanach pour 1701: Bureau de la loterie (1701, Musée Carnavalet, Paris)……………………………………………………………………………………..26 Image 1.2: Royal Lottery Hawker (From Bernard, Lotteries in Europe, 72)...……….....27 Image 2.1: Lottery Affiche , Les Loterie tirées par permission du Roy pour le bien du public, le soulagement des hôpitaux,… (1705, Musée Carnavalet, Paris)…………….....89 Image 2.2: Inset of Figure 2.1 at the bottom center………………………………..…….90 Image 2.3: Lottery ticket for the January 1772 drawing of the Loterie des Communautés Religieuses……………………………………………………………………………….91 Image 2.4: Lottery ticket for the September 1777 drawing of the Loterie de Pieté (previously known as the Loterie de St. Sulpice)………………………………..………91 Image 2.5: Le Tirage (n.d., Musée Carnavalet, Paris)……………………………….…..92 Image 2.6: Tirage de la loterie en 1772, (1772, Musée Carnavalet, Paris)……………...93 Image 2.7: Affiche for the Loterie de l’Hôtel de Ville de Paris, (1761, Musée Carnavalet, Paris)……………………………………………………………………………….…….94 Image 3.1: Lottery ticket for the October 1772 drawing of the Loterie de l’École Royale Militaire…………………………………………………………………………...…….153 Image 3.2: Tableau des annexes of the Loterie de l’École Royale Militaire……......…154 Image 4.1: Scene outside a receiver’s office of the Royal Lottery (N.d., Musée Carnavalet, Paris)……………………………………………………………………….201 Image 4.2: Tirage de la Loterie Royale de France, (N.d., Cabinet des Éstampes, BN, Paris)……………………………………………………………………………………202 Image 4.3: Lottery ticket for the February 1783 drawing of the Loterie Royale de France, (1783, Musée Carnavalet, Paris)………………………………………………..………203 vii Image 5.1: Parisians Covering Symbols of Royalty. (From Tackett, When the King Took Flight, 110).……………………...................................................................…………..263 viii List of Tables Table 2.1: Comparison of the Profits of the Loterie de Saint-Sulpice before and after the 4 sous Price Increase………….……………………………………………….…………64 Table 2.2: Payout Structure of the Loterie de la Ville under the July 30, 1760 Arret…..74 Table 3.1. The possible combinations for a player wagering on numbers 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7……………….…………………………………………………………...……….127 ix List of Graphs Graph 1: Sales for the Loterie de Saint-Sulpice……………………………………….....59 Graph 2: Profits for the Loterie de Saint-Sulpice………………………………………..59 Graph 3: Sales for the Loterie des Enfants Trouvés……………………………………..60 Graph 4: Profits for the Loterie des Enfants Trouvés…………………………………....60 Graph 5: Sales for the Loterie des Communautés Religieuses…………………………..61 Graph 6: Profits for the Loterie des Communautés Religieuses………………………....61 x List of Appendices Appendix 1: Ticket Sales and Profits for the Loterie de Saint-Sulpice……………...…271 Appendix 2: Ticket Sales and Profits for the Loterie