EMBODIED ENCOUNTERS Colonial Governmentality and Missionary Practices in Java and South Dutch New-Guinea, 1856-1942 Maaike Derksen ISBN 978-94-6421-251-8 Cover image Indonesian pattern drawing, painted by a pupil from the first or second class from the MULO school in Yogyakarta, 1933-1935 (Erfgoedcentrum Nederlands Kloosterleven, Collectie AR-B015 Broeders van Maastricht, inv. nr. 4572) Design/lay-out Promotie In Zicht (www.promotie-inzicht.nl) Print Ipskamp Printing © Maaike Derksen, 2021 All rights are reserved. No part of this book may e reproduced, distributed, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without prior permission from the author. EMBODIED ENCOUNTERS Colonial Governmentality and Missionary Practices in Java and South Dutch New-Guinea, 1856-1942 Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen op gezag van de rector magnificus prof. dr. J.H.J.M. van Krieken, volgens besluit van het college van decanen in het openbaar te verdedigen op dinsdag 15 juni 2021 om 10.30 uur precies door Aleida Maaike Derksen geboren op 23 juli 1984 te Enschede Promotoren prof. dr. M.E. Monteiro prof. dr. W.H.M. Jansen prof. dr. G.A. Mak (Universiteit van Amsterdam) Manuscriptcommissie prof. dr. M.E.B. Derks prof. dr. T. Ballantyne (University of Otago, Nieuw Zeeland) prof. dr. M. Bloembergen (Universiteit Leiden) prof. dr. I. Goddeeris (KU Leuven, België) dr. D.B.G.W. Lyna Table of contents Maps VIII Abbreviations IX Acknowledgements XI Chapter one 1 Introduction Christian missions and colonialism 4 Christian missions in Dutch colonial history 11 Colonial governmentality 15 Missionary practices 18 Embodied encounters 19 Local intermediaries 21 Spaces of transformation 23 Research questions 26 Archives and sources 27 Outline of the thesis: four case studies 30 A note on language, spelling, and quotes 33 Chapter two 37 Civilising Europeans: Dutch Catholic missionaries in Java during the late nineteenth century Introduction 37 Catholic missionaries in Java 40 Europeans in the Dutch East Indies 48 Gatekeepers of colonial privilege: the case of the West African soldiers 50 Solidifying boundaries: missionary concern with pauperism in Java 53 Conclusion: Civilising Europeans, producing difference 62 Chapter three 65 Fashioning a Javanese Catholic elite: The boarding schools in central Java, 1900-42 Introduction 65 Colonial education for ‘Natives’ 69 The Catholic mission and educating Javanese children 71 Muntilan and Mendut: two Catholic boarding schools 76 Muntilan 76 Mendut 81 Pupils from the local elites 84 Moral and religious formation in the boarding schools 88 Fashioning housewives and creating catholic homes 93 Conclusion: A Catholic Javanese elite 98 Chapter four 105 Spaces of transformation: Governing Marind-anim in South Dutch New Guinea, 1905-21 Introduction 105 Encounters and entanglements 109 Different encounters: missionary priests and brothers 115 Civilising notorious headhunters 121 Dressing to ‘civilise’: fashioning Marind bodies, beliefs, and lives 125 Military intervention: a pre-condition for missionaries’ civilising work 131 Spaces of transformation 133 The boarding schools 134 The first model villages 141 Conclusion 146 Chapter five 149 Local intermediaries? The missionising and governing of colonial subjects in South Dutch New Guinea, 1920-42 Introduction 149 Model kampongs 155 Catholic goeroes from Kei and Tanimbar Islands 162 Goeroes as village leaders and informants 165 Goeroes as educators 169 Goeroes as catechists 174 Conclusion: Goeroes as ‘local’ intermediaries? 176 Chapter six 179 Conclusion Creating and managing governable colonial subjects 181 Colonial education 182 Children, youth, and separation practices 183 Intelligence gathering 185 Religion as marker of difference 186 Spaces of transformation 187 Intermediaries 188 Rethinking Dutch imperial history 189 Appendix 191 Overview of archives and periodicals References 193 Primary sources 193 Secondary sources 196 Samenvatting 209 Curriculum vitae 219 Maps FIGURE 2.1: Map of The Dutch East Indies with the major mission stations around 1900. FIGURE 3.1: Map of Central-Java, with the schools of Mendut and Muntilan. FIGURE 4.1: Detailed historical map of South New Guinea around Merauke-Okaba. FIGURE 5.1: Map of Dutch New Guinea and the Maluku Islands. VIII Abbreviations Abbreviation Meaning English ELS Europese Lagere School European Elementary School FDNSC Filiae Dominae Nostrae a Sacro Corde Daughters of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart FIC Fratres Immaculatae Conceptionis Brothers of Maastricht Beatae Mariae Virginis HBS Hogere Burgerschool Higher Civic School HCS Hollands-Chinese School Dutch-Chinese School HIK Hollands Inlandse Kweekschool Dutch Native teacher training school HIS Hollands Inlandse School Dutch Native School KMM KomMissieMemoires Commission Mission Memoirs KNIL Koninklijk Nederlandsch-Indisch Leger Royal Netherlands East Indies Army MSC Missionnaires du Sacré Coeur Missionaries of the Sacred Heart of Jesus MULO Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs More Extensive Primary Education OSF Sorores de Poenitentia ac Charitate Franciscan Sisters of Heythuysen Christiana Tertii Ordinis Sancti Francisci RR Regerings Reglement Colonial constitution of the Dutch East Indies SJ Societas Iesu Jesuits STOVIA School tot Opleiding van Inlandsche School for training native doctors Artsen VOC Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie Dutch East India Company IX acknowledgements Acknowledgements Before embarking on this project I had not visited Indonesia, nor had any personal or professional ambition to do so. The conclusion of my doctoral research finds me altogether captivated by this beautiful country, and eager to return and renew the friendships I have gained in recent years. The topic of my research and the richness of sources held by the Catholic mission archives have never failed to intrigue me, and continue to inspire my plans for future research. Overall, the completion of this project has fuelled my development as a scholar while enriching my life in a wider sense. I have gained many skills, a fluency in academic disciplines outside my own, and a chance to travel the world; bringing me to new places and into contact with new people. Turning back to survey the many years spent reading, researching, and discussing, I realise that many contributors and collaborators have, both directly and indirectly, greatly assisted in the completion of my PhD thesis. They have guided and supported me as I navigated the twists and turns of this dissertation highway. Firstly, I am greatly indebted to all my supervisors, Geertje Mak, Marit Monteiro, and Willy Jansen. You took me on as a PhD student and supported me with this project – thank you, thank you, thank you. This thesis has benefited much from your careful reading and thoughtful feedback. As supervisors you gave me freedom in conducting my research, supported my teaching work in several universities (both in the Netherlands and in Indonesia), and respected my commitment to projects within and beyond academia. Receiving your mentorship has been a pleasure and a privilege; it would be a great honour to work with you again in the future. Willy, you have taught me many valuable life lessons, not the least of which is to drink Cola while completing fieldwork in Indonesia; a lesson I passed to my son recently when we visited Yogyakarta (since our return he has taken a great liking to Cola, which we reserve for special occasions). Beyond your practical wisdom, I am grateful for your thoroughness and eye for detail, especially during the later phases of writing this dissertation. Geertje and Marit, your supervision and collegial support have also proved indispensable to the completion of my studies, and a continued inspiration as I embark upon my academic career. Geertje, your passion for research sustained my enthusiasm for this project throughout its duration, thank you for encouraging and challenging me at every turn. Marit, it has been a great honour to work with you, to benefit from your thought-provoking feedback and your encouragement of new ideas. I am also grateful for your willingness to share your office space with me over the last two years. It is no understatement to say I could not have finished this thesis without your guidance, thank you! XI acknowledgements Violeta Gilabert and Carly Gordyn, words are insufficient to express the extent of my gratitude. Thank you for taking the time to comment on my work and meticulously copy-edit this thesis. Any remaining mistakes are of course entirely my responsibility. Special thanks go also to Tony Ballantyne and Chris Ballard, who generously hosted me in Canberra (ANU) and Dunedin (Otago University) respectively. My time as your guest was invaluable, and now joins a host of cherished memories attached to the completion of this project. Your support afforded me the chance to discuss my project with leading scholars in the field, enriching my knowledge and growing my ambitions for my own research. Here I must acknowledge financial support provided by the Frye Stipend, without which this portion of my research journey could not have taken place. Another heartfelt thanks goes to Faizatush Sholikhah; I met you in Yogyakarta when I did exploratory fieldwork and learnt Bahasa Indonesia enabled by the financial contribution of the Catharine van Tussenbroek Fonds. We were both still history students back then. Thank you for being my friend and colleague, and for making my time in Indonesia extra joyful. Karel