UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Mozi on Warfare: A Critical Analysis of Mohist Military Thought by Geoffrey Peter Crookes A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF STRATEGIC STUDIES CENTRE FOR MILITARY AND STRATEGIC STUDIES CALGARY, ALBERTA SEPTEMBER, 2008 © Geoffrey Peter Crookes Library and Bibliotheque et 1*1 Archives Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-44302-6 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-44302-6 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives and Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, prefer, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans loan, distribute and sell theses le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, worldwide, for commercial or non­ sur support microforme, papier, electronique commercial purposes, in microform, et/ou autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. this thesis. Neither the thesis Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de nor substantial extracts from it celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement may be printed or otherwise reproduits sans son autorisation. reproduced without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne Privacy Act some supporting sur la protection de la vie privee, forms may have been removed quelques formulaires secondaires from this thesis. ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the thesis. •*• Canada Abstract Studies on Mozi (470-391 BCE) and his philosophical school neglect the military content of his teachings. Yet almost one third of the text which documents his thought is specifically dedicated to military affairs. This neglect distorts our understanding of Mohism and strips Mohism of its essential military character. To remedy this, the neglected military chapters of the Mozi were analyzed in this study, and the content and character of Mohist military thought were brought forth. The Seven Military Classics of ancient China were also analyzed for content to establish an understanding of contemporary Chinese military thought. The results of these analyses show that Mohist military thought is founded on a highly intellectual strategic understanding of warfare that is consistent with both Mohist sociopolitical philosophy and the fundamentals of the Chinese military classics. Consequently, the military genius of Mozi is unveiled. iii Dedication To my father, for all his help and encouragement in school IV TABLE OF CONTENTS Approval Page ii Abstract iii Dedication iv Table of Contents v-vi INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER ONE: MOHISM AND ITS INFLUENCE 5 1.1 Mozi: Emerging from Obscurity 5 1.2 Organization, Influence, and Activities of the School 14 1.3 Qualifying Mohism 24 1.4 Mohist Philosophy 26 1.5 Mohist Doctrine: Ten Themes 29 1.5.1 Promoting Worth (shang xian foJM) 30 1.5.2 Conformity with Superiors (shang tong fnf|q]) 31 1.5.3 Impartial Caring (jian ai HtH) 31 1.5.4 Denouncing Aggressive Warfare (fei gong #J&) 33 1.5.5 Moderation in Expenditure (jie yong W>Wi) 34 1.5.6 Simplicity in Funerals (jie zang ffftfp) 35 1.5.7 The Will of Heaven (tian zhi 5^S) 37 1.5.8 Explaining Ghosts (minggui ^MM,) 38 1.5.9 Condemnation of Music (fei yue #^) 39 1.5.10 Rejecting Fatalism (feinting ^np) 40 1.6 Mohism Reviewed 41 CHAPTER TWO: CHINESE MILITARY THOUGHT 47 2.1 Introduction 47 2.2 Project Considerations 48 2.3 Methodology 50 2.4 The Seven Military Classics 56 2.4.1 The Methods ofSima (Simafa) 56 2.4.2 Sunzi's Art of War 59 2.4.3 Wuzi 63 2.4.4 WeiLiaozi 66 2.4.5 Taigong's Six Secret Teachings 67 2.4.6 Three Strategies of Huang Shi Gong 69 2.4.7 Questions and Replies between Tang Taizong and Li Weigong 72 2.5 Chinese Military Thought 74 2.6 A Modern Perspective 80 2.7 Excellence in Warfare 85 2.8 Civil and Military (wen-wu) ~$0^ 87 v CHAPTER THREE: ANALYSIS OF THE MILITARY CHAPTERS OF MOZI 90 3.1 Introduction 90 3.2 Methodology 91 3.3 The Text. 92 3.4 Analysis Results 95 3.4.1 Civil-military affairs a) Civil organization, distinction, and control 99 i.) Organization and Distinction 99 ii.) Control 101 hi.) Law and punishment 104 iv.) Mutual responsibility 107 3.4.2 b) Military organization, distinction, and control 110 3.4.3 c) Motivation and manipulation of spirit (qi H) 112 3.4.4 d) Management of social mobility 114 3.4.5 Defensive preparation c) Provisions/materials/logistics 116 3.4.6 Selection and employment of men 118 3.4.7 Assessment and evaluation of enemy 120 3.4.8 Generalship 124 CHAPTER FOUR: MOHIST MILITARY THOUGHT 127 4.1 Contemporary Perspectives on War 127 4.2 Mozion War: Attitude and Involvement 130 4.3 Activism 136 4.4 Excellence in Warfare: Manipulation of Disposition 142 4.5 Counterattack Capability 146 4.6 Strength through Fierceness 147 CONCLUSION 151 BIBLIOGRAPHY 155 APPENDIX A: STATES OF THE EASTERN ZHOU ERA 160 vi 1 INTRODUCTION In ancient China there was a scholar named Mozi (470-391 BCE) who had a profound effect on society. In the Warring States period (ca. 481-221 BCE) his influence rivaled, and perhaps even exceeded, that of the famous educator Confucius (551-479 BCE). The school that Mozi founded remained active for close to three hundred years and was unsurpassed as one of the most organized and focused groups of the pre-Qin era. The existing record of Mozi's teachings can be found in a text titled after him.1 The oldest available records indicate that the Mozi originally contained seventy-one chapters in fifteen books, which is consistent with the extant edition.2 While it is unknown whether or not Mozi himself wrote any of the text, it is believed that the majority of it should be attributed to his disciples. The text covers a range of topics including epistemology, ethics, religion, economy, politics, science, and military tactics, all of which has been associated with the Mohist tradition. Little was known about the Mohists until more recent scholarship revealed their involvement and influence during the Warring States period. The disappearance of the discipline in the centuries following Mozi's death, and a general disinterest in Mohist philosophy, kept Mohism hidden from historians. The extant Mozi has done little to 1 For this study, I have consulted five different English translations, a modern Chinese translation, and the original classical Chinese text. Unless otherwise noted, all proper citations of the text refer to the Library of Chinese Classics edition of Mozi, translated into English by Wang Rongpei and Wang Hong (Changsha, Hunan: Hunan People's Publishing House, 2006). This will simplify the citation process because this edition of the text (which is the only complete English translation to date) has the original classical Chinese (based on Sun Yirang's Mozi Re-annotated) adjacent to the English and modern Chinese translations. References to the text will thus refer directly to the original Mozi, as presented in this edition. Direct quotes will be appropriately highlighted, where used, as will any personal modifications of the translated text. I have also relied heavily on Mei Yi-pao's critical English translation The Ethical and Political Works ofMotse (1929; reprint, Westport, Conn.: Hyperion Press, 1993). Its high quality and accessibility renders it an essential in the study of the Mozi. 21 recognize that Burton Watson and Robin D.S. Yates both note the proper difference between 'books,' 'chapters,' and 'sections' in the Mozi. There are properly fifteen chapters and 71 sections in the text. However, in this study I have adopted the terms used by Mei Yi-pao's in his English translation. Therefore, I refer to fifteen books and 71 chapters in the Mozi. This has been done more for coherency than anything else, as the informal use of the word 'section' (which is analogous to "portion") can lead to undesirable ambiguities. 2 improve this. The text is notoriously corrupt and fragmentary, following from its careless transmission, and the grammar and semantics used are outdated and, in places, cryptic. As a result, modern scholars have limited their studies to those portions of the text that are best preserved and thus most easily understood. Although this is a convenient approach to the material, it is also academically irresponsible, as it disregards portions of the text because of difficulty alone. This has resulted in an historical interpretation of Mozi, his teachings, and his school that is heavily skewed towards only his social philosophy. Studies on Mohism generally emphasize his more unique philosophical concepts, including "universal love," condemnation of warfare, and his belief in an interactive Heaven. One modern scholar has even noted, "Mozi was the only native religious teacher that China ever had, it is customary to say."3 Among the neglected portions of the text are twenty-one chapters, almost an entire third of the Mozi, dedicated specifically to military affairs and city defence.