Component-I (A) – Personal details: Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati. Dr. Rita Chaudhuri Dept. of AIHC, University of Calcutta. Dr.K.Mavali Rajan Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan. Dr. Rita Chaudhuri Dept. of AIHC, University of Calcutta. 1 Component-I (B) – Description of module: Subject Name Indian Culture Paper Name Social and Cultural History of India (From Earliest to 1707 A.D.) Module Name / Title Society and Culture during Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas Module Id IC / SCHI / 22 Pre requisites Understand the Early dynastic history of South India Objectives To know about the social practices and cultural value of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas based on the literary and inscriptional evidences. The literature provides information regarding the people and their occupations, their life style, status of women, religious practices and other cultural aspects. Keywords Rashtrakutas / Chalukyas / Kanada / Varna System / Literature, Women, Education E-text (Quadrant-I) : 1. Introduction The Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta rule mark an important landmark in the history of the south India. The political atmosphere in south Indian regions shifted from minor kingdoms to great empires with the dominance of the Chalukyas, Cholas, Rashtrakutas and other regional powers. These kingdoms took control and consolidated the entire river valleys of the Deccan regions. In the rise of these great powers we saw the birth of efficient administration, emergence of new castes and communities, overseas trades and commerce, cultural developments in the form of new architectural styles. We can also see the royal support to the development of Kannada language and literatures in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukya in the Jain and Veerasaiva tradition. In 11th century A.D. we saw the birth of Telugu literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukya dynasty. 2. Social Life of the People The social life of people of South India during the Chalukya and Rashtrakuta periods was religion based. They followed the traditional Hindu ways of life in the society, with a liberal attitude. In social hierarchy and religious influence the Brahmins occupied a highly respectable position. They acted as ministers and advisers to the king as well as priests. Even though casteism within its social and economic implications was universally recognized, yet the spirit of catholicity and the feeling of mutual understanding were prevailing in the society. The Chalukya and Rashtrakuta rulers patronized all the religions and did not impose restrictions on social and religious practices of others. This policy of religious toleration helped towards the spread of Buddhism and Jainism in south Indian regions. 2 Information regarding the social life, the caste system, and other socio-cultural activities during the Chalukya and Rashtrakuta times comes from literature, inscriptions and from the notes of Chinese, Greek and Arab travellers to India at the time. Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang (630-645 A.D.) visited India during the reign of the Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II. He described the social life and manner of the people. According to him the people were simple, honest and faithful. They always regarded the morality and truthfulness in public life. Travellers from the Arab and other Muslim countries like Alberuni (c. 973-1048 A.D), Sulaiman (c. 851 A.D.), Al Masudi (c. 932-956 A.D.), etc. portrayed the social and cultural practices of the Rashtrakuta period. The Aihole inscription states that the general attitude of the society was unorthodox towards all communities. The land grants were given to Buddhist Monks, Jaina Arahatas and the Brahmins. Brahmanism reached its zenith under the Chalukyas. 2.1. Caste System The literature and traveler’s accounts provide evidence that the Hindu caste system was widespread among the people. Chronicles mention more castes than the four basic castes in the Hindu social system known today, some as many as seven castes. One traveller's account mentions sixteen castes including the four basic castes/Varnas of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Sudras. These four principal castes are referred to in the records of the period as nalku-jati. Besides of four principal castes, the lower stratum of society consisted of untouchables, referred to as horahinavaru, and those who had been punished with excommunication and expulsion from the nalku-jati. There were many sub-castes emerged from the original four through the inter-mixing of each other, which resulting the birth of new professional castes. People belonging to professions like sailing, hunting, weaving, basket making and fishing were all accommodated into castes or sub-castes. The Antyajas belonged to a caste that provided many menial services to the wealthy people. Among people of upper castes only those Kshatriyas belonging to the Sat- Kshatriya sub-caste (noble Kshatriyas) were considered higher in status than the Brahmins who otherwise enjoyed the highest status in the Chalukya and Rashtrakuta societies. 2.1.1. Brahmins Among the four principal castes the Brahmins were occupied an important place and played vital role in the socio-cultural life of the people. They were honoured by the people as forming the most noble and illustrious caste. The Brahmins seem to have formed one caste throughout India without any sub-divisions based on provisional or other minor differences. There was many Gotras and Pravaras among the Brahmin groups. Besides the Gotras and Pravaras, the Brahmins seem to have characteristic names according to their occupations and modes of life. Alberuni says that when Brahmin is busy with the service of one fire, he is called ishtin; if he serves three fires, he is called agnihotrin; if he besides offers an offering to the fire, he is called dikshita. In addition the contemporary records refer to such Brahmanic surnames as Avasthi, Sarman, Trivedin, Chaturvedin, Mishra and the title Pandita. The early scriptures say that the lawful occupation of the Brahmins were studying and teaching Veda, performing sacrifices for him and for others. To attest the fact that Alberuni notes that “the universal duties of the Brahmins throughout his whole life are works of piety, giving alms and receiving them. For what which the Brahmins gives reverts to the pitrs (in reality a benefit to the fathers). He must continually read, perform sacrifices, take care of fire which he lights, offer before it, worship it, and preserve from being extinguished, that he may be burned by it after his death”. However it was common for Brahmins to occupy hereditary administrative posts as well. In addition, such professions normally considered non- Brahminical – agriculture, trade in Betel nuts and martial posts – were increasingly occupied 3 by Brahmins. People of the medical profession were treated with regard and inscriptions mention some Brahmin doctors. The Brahmins had enjoyed many privileges in society, especially exemption from taxation and capital punishment are two of the main privileges claimed for the Brahmins by the Smirtis and the Puranas. This privilege was only applicable to the learned Brahmins. It is quite clear from numerous Rashtrakuta charters that the donees of the Brahmadeya grants, who were learned Brahmins, used to receive all the taxes payable to the inhabitants to the king, they themselves had to pay nothing to the latter. Capital punishment though commonly practiced was not given to Brahmins who were found guilty of heinous crimes and in this respect they enjoyed the same privileges as royal Kshatriya sub-castes. Instead, as an alternate punishment was given to the Brahmin defaulter. The killing of a Brahmin was considered as a heinous crime and this alternate punishment served the purpose of enforcement of the law. 2.1.2. Kshatriyas The only caste considered above the Brahmins were the Kshatriyas belonging to royal and noble families. Not all Kshatriyas were considered upper caste and not all upper caste people were Kshatriyas. The Kshatriyas did not refer to their Gotras during the Rashtrakuta period. Their usual occupation was that of arms, there was no dearth of the Kshatriyas devoted to letters. According to Alberuni they could study and learn Vedas, but they were not permitted to teach the Vedas to others. He further inform us that ‘after the twelfth year of life, Kshatriyas girds himself with a single cord of the three fold yajnopavita, and a single other cord of cotton’. It appears from the Parasara Smrti that like the Brahmins the Kshatriyas also had taken to agriculture. 2.1.3. Vaishyas The Vaishya ranked third in social hierarchy. Mostly the people who involved in commercial activities were called as Vaishya category. But Alberuni says that the duty of the Vaishyas was ‘to practice agriculture and to cultivate land, to tend cattle’. During the Chalukya and Rashtrakuta periods the Vaishyas were generally described as artificers and domestics. The social status of a Vaishya was much better than what has been stated by Alberuni. The Rashtrakuta inscriptions refer to a section of Vaishya community known as Mahajanas who were recipients of concessions from the rulers for certain religious pursuits. It would thus appear that the Vaishya community held an honoured position in the framework of society. 2.1.4. Sudras In Hindu social hierarchy the Sudras were occupied in fourth category. Generally serving to upper three Varnas described as the lawful occupation of the Sudras. According to the observations of Alberuni ‘the Sudra is like a servant to the Brahmin,, taking care of his affairs and serving him. They were not allowed to saying prayers, the recitation of the Veda and offering sacrifices to the fire. According to Medhatithi, a Sudra was entitled to perform pakayajna and religious sacrifices. Somadeva, a Jain writer of the Deccan, observes that internal and external purity qualified even a Sudra for spiritual duties connected with gods, Brahmins and ascetic life. 2.2.