Stabilizing Indigenous Languages Gina Cantoni, Editor A Center for Excellence in Education Monograph Northern Arizona University Flagstaff Revised Edition, 2007 Stabilizing Indigenous Languages Stabilizing Indigenous Languages is a special issue of Northern Arizona University’s Center for Excellence in Education Monograph Series, Perspec- tives. Monograph Series Editorial Board Stephen D. Lapan and Sam Minner, General Editors Keith Carreiro Tom Fetsco Dan Kain Ramona Mellott Susan Miller Peggy Raines Editorial Board For This Special Issue James Crawford Dick Heiser Deborah House Richard Littlebear Gary McLean Jon Reyhner First Published in 1996 Second Revised Edition, 2007 The contents of this monograph were developed under a grant from the Depart- ment of Education. However, those contents do not necessarily represent the policy of the Department of Education, and you should not assume endorsement by the Federal Government. Copyright © 2007 by Northern Arizona University. Additional copies of this monograph can be obtained from the Bilingual/Multicultural Education Pro- gram, College of Education, PO Box 5774, Northern Arizona University, Flag- staff, Arizona, 86011-5774. An order blank can be found on the Teaching Indig- enous Languages web site at <http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/TIL.html>. Reprint- ing and copying on a non-profit basis is hereby allowed with proper identifica- tion of the source, except for James Crawford’s paper, which has special re- quirements indicated in the footnote on its title page. ii Stabilizing Indigenous Languages Table of Contents Introduction Gina Cantoni v Preface Richard E. Littlebear xi I: Needs and Rationale — Jon Reyhner, Facilitator November Roundtable: Needs and Rationale Group Abstract 2 Rationale and Needs for Stabilizing Indigenous Languages Jon Reyhner 3 Status of Native American Language Endangerment Michael Krauss 15 Aboriginal Language Maintenance, Development, and Enhancement Barbara Burnaby 21 II: Language Policy — William Demmert and Robert Arnold, Facilitators November Roundtable: Native American Language Policy Group Abstract 38 Native American Language Policy Group Summary 39 OBEMLA’s Commitment to Endangered Languages Dang T. Pham 44 Seven Hypotheses on Language Loss: Causes and Cures James Crawford 45 Policy Documents: Native American Languages Act of 1990 61 National Goals: Indian Nations at Risk Task Force 64 III: Families and Communities — Joshua Fishman, Benjamin Barney, and Dan McLaughlin, Facilitators November Roundtable: Families and Communities Group Abstract 67 Families and Community Group Summary 68 What Do You Lose When You Lose Your Language? Joshua Fishman 71 What My Hualapai Language Means To Me Damon Clarke 82 Language Activists Panel Summary Jon Reyhner 86 Written Statement, Rosemary Ackley Christensen 90 Media, Writers, Arts Session Summary Laura Wallace 92 Written Statement, Ofelia Zepeda 97 iii Stabilizing Indigenous Languages IV: Education — John Oller and Richard Littlebear, Facilitators November Roundtable: Education Group Abstract 100 Education Group Summary 101 Early Childhood Session Summary Gary D. McLean 106 Schools - Language Acquisition Session Summary Gary D. McLean 110 Schools - Developmental Session Summary Ferlin Clark 114 Colleges and Universities Session Summary 117 Native American Student Panel Summary Jon Reyhner and Deborah House 119 Adult Education Session Summary Deborah House and Jon Reyhner 128 Additional Papers American Samoa Language Arts and Culture Bernadette Manase, Elisapeta Luaao, and Mataio Fiamalua 135 Beauford-Delta Divisional Board of Education Pauline Gordon 137 Hawaiian Language Programs Kauanoe Kamana and William H. Wilson 137 Lower Kuskokwim Bilingual Programs Beverly Williams, Kathy Gross, and Duane Magoon 141 Navajo Immersion Program Lettie Nave 144 Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community Emmett S. White, Kelly Washington, and Beverly Smith 145 Stories for Language Revitalization in Náhuatl and Chichimeca Norbert Francis and Rafael Nieto Andrade 146 The Tarahumara of Mexico: An Overview Carla Paciotto 155 Tuba City Gary D. McLean and Jon Reyhner 162 Conclusion Maintaining Languages: What Works and What Doesn’t Joshua Fishman 165 Appendices Contributors 176 Selected Resources on Native American Language Renewal Jon Reyhner 178 A Model for Promoting Native American Language Preservation and Teaching 187 iv Stabilizing Indigenous Languages Introduction Gina Cantoni In November 1994 and May 1995, with funding and sponsorship from the United States Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs (OBEMLA), Northern Arizona University’s Center for Excellence in Education hosted two symposia on stabilizing indigenous languages attended by partici- pants from 21 states, two U.S. territories, and Canada. The Flagstaff Roundtables on Stabilizing Indigenous Languages sought through the bringing together of tribal educators and experts on linguistics, language renewal, and language teach- ing to lay out a blueprint of policy changes, educational reforms, and commu- nity initiatives to stabilize and revitalize American Indian and Alaska Native languages. These symposia included a survey of the historical, current, and pro- jected status of indigenous languages in the United States as well as extensive dialogues on the roles of families, communities, and schools in promoting their use and maintenance. In addition to listening to a variety of experts, the partici- pants turned their attention to documenting how language maintenance and trans- mission can become a reality, with emphasis on “success stories.” The broad areas of family, community, and school naturally fell into subtopics such as pre- school, adult education, arts and the media, and so forth. Each symposium highlighted talks by well-known scholars. In November: Dr. Dang T. Pham, Deputy Director, OBEMLA “OBEMLA’s Commitment to Endangered Indigenous Languages” Dr. Joshua A. Fishman, Distinguished Professor Emeritus Ferkauf Graduate School, Yeshiva University “Reversing Language Shift: Challenges, Strategies, and Successes” In May: Dr. Richard Littlebear Director of the Multifunctional Resource Center in Anchorage “A Review of the Findings of the First Symposium” Dr. Michael Krauss, University of Alaska “Status of Native North American Languages: Why Should We Care?” James Crawford, Author, Consultant “Sociological and Historical Perspectives on Language Shift” v Stabilizing Indigenous Languages Damon Clarke “What My Language Means To Me” and finally: Dr. Joshua A. Fishman, Distinguished Professor Emeritus Ferkauf Graduate School, Yeshiva University, NYC “What Works and What Doesn’t” In addition to interacting with these experts, the participants met in small groups led by moderators who encouraged everyone to speak. The outcome of the sessions has been a somewhat surprising convergence of ideas in terms of what impedes language maintenance and what promotes it. Among the most frequently discussed barriers were: • the lack of opportunity to practice native languages at home; • the parents’ lack of proficiency in the native language; • the teachers’ criticism of those who speak the home language in school; • the tendency to correct novice learners whenever they make a mis- take; • the likelihood of put-downs by non-speakers of the home language; • the perception that English is a better vehicle for economic success; and • the teaching of isolated vocabulary items instead of communicative skills. In addition, some widespread misconceptions about language teaching and learning were identified as serious barriers to the success of native language maintenance and transmission. These misconceptions included: • you have to give up your own language in order to master another one; • you need special training to teach your own language to your chil- dren; • schools can take over the job of teaching a language if families do not teach it; and • writing a language is what keeps it alive. Among the conclusions on which there seemed to be strong agreement by symposium participants were: • school programs alone are not sufficient for language maintenance (but better than nothing); • schools must change significantly and communities must have a major say in what the schools do; and vi Stabilizing Indigenous Languages • schools are best at implementing a developmental language curricu- lum for children who have acquired the language at home. Consistent with the above, the most frequently agreed-upon recommen-dations were: • keep the home as the central source of native language learning; • provide instruction in the home language at an early age; • offer classes in native languages at all levels, including college; • welcome anyone interested to attend these classes; and • combine the focus on language with a focus on culture. These are not startling innovations; what we need is a critical mass of com- mitted people, and this critical mass can only be created through continuous capillary infiltration of information and encouragement. This volume is intended to be a part of such an effort. It will be disseminated not only to those who attended one or both of the sessions, but to a much wider audience consisting of Native and non-Native individuals and institutions. The message this volume carries begins with an alert about the severity of impending language loss. Many people are not aware of the danger, and researchers may not agree about exact figures. We are told that 80% of existing American Indian languages are mori- bund — perhaps 50% of the languages existing