A grammar of lahai PacificLinguistics REFERENCE COpy Not to be removed Burenhult, N. A grammar of Jahai. PL-566, xiv + 245 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 2005. DOI:10.15144/PL-566.cover ©2005 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. Pacific Linguistics 566 Pacific Linguistics is a publisher specialising in grammars and linguistic descriptions, dictionaries and other materials on languages of the Pacific, Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, southeast and south Asia, and Australia. Pacific Linguistics, established in 1963 through an initial grant fr om the Hunter Douglas Fund, is associated with the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies at The Australian National University. The authors and editors of Pacific Linguistics publications are drawn from a wide range of institutions around the world. Publications are refereed by scholars with relevant expertise, who are usually not members of the editorial board. FOUNDINGEDITOR: Stephen A. Wurm EDITORIAL BOARD: John Bowden, Malcolm Ross and Darrell Tryon (Managing Editors), I Wayan Arka, David Nash, Andrew Pawley, Paul Sidwell, Jane Simpson EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD: Karen Adams, Arizona State University Lillian Huang, National Taiwan Normal Peter Austin, School of Oriental and African University Studies Bambang Kaswanti Purwo, Universitas Atma Alexander Adelaar, University of Melbourne Jaya Byron Bender, University of Hawai 'i Marian Klamer, Universiteit Leiden Walter Bisang, Johannes Gutenberg- Harold Koch,Australian National University Universitiit Mainz Frantisek Lichtenberk, University of Robert Blust, University of Hawai 'i Auckland Lyle Campbell, Canterbury University Patrick McConvell, Australian Institute of James Collins, Universiti Kebangsaan Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Malaysia Studies Bernard Comrie, Max Planck Institute for William McGregor, Aarhus Universitet EvolutionaryAnthropology Ulrike Mosel, Christian-Albrechts­ Soenjono Dardjowidjojo, Universitas Atma Universitiit zu Kiel Jaya Claire Moyse-Faurie, Centre National de la Matthew Dryer, State University of New York Recherche Scientifique at Buffalo Bernd Nothofer, Johann Wolfgang Goethe- Jerold A. Edmondson, University of Texas at Universitiit Frankfurt am Main Arlington Ger Reesink, Universiteit Leiden Nicholas Evans, University of Melbourne Lawrence Reid, University of Hawai'i Margaret Florey, Monash University Jean-Claude Rivierre, Centre National de la William Foley, University of Sydney Recherche Scientifique Karl Franklin, Summer Institute of Melenaite Taumoefolau, University of Linguistics Auckland Charles Grimes, Universitas Kristen Artha Tasaku Tsunoda, University of Tokyo Wacana Kupang John Wolff, Cornell University Nikolaus Himmelmann. Ruhr-Universitiit Elizabeth Zeitoun, Academica Sinica Bochum A gramDlar of J ahai Niclas Burenhult Pacific Linguistics Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Published by Pacific Linguistics Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200 Australia Copyright in this edition is vested with Pacific Linguistics First published 2005 National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Burenhult, Niclas A grammar of Jahai. Bibliography ISBN 0 85883 554 1 1. Semang languages - Grammar. 2. Semang (Malaysian people) - Languages. I. The Australian National University. Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. Pacific Linguistics. II. Title. 495.93 The cover illustration shows a Jahai headman and spirit-medium Cheneleg Piloi beside the sacred Batu Rem, a limestone outcrop on the Pergau river, in Kelantan, Peninsular Malaysia. (Photo: Niclas Burenhult.) Copyedited by Basil Wilson Typeset by Jeanette Coombes Cover design by Ciril s Printers Printed and bound by Cirils Printers, Fyshwick, Canberra Table of contents Abbreviations xii Preface and acknowledgements xiii Chapter 1: Introducing Jahai 1 1.1 The Jahai 1 1.2 Linguistic classification and history 2 1.3 The sociolinguistic situation 6 1.3.1 Idiolects, dialects and multilingualism 6 1.3.2 Schooling and literacy 7 1.3.3 Endangerment 7 1.4 Previous research 8 1.4.1 Research on Jahai 8 1.4.1.1 Schebesta's grammatical sketch 9 1.4.2 Other research related to Aslian 10 1.4.2.1 General 11 1.4.2.2 Northern Aslian 12 1.4.2.3 Central Aslian 12 1.4.2.4 Southern Aslian 13 1.5 The present study 14 1.5.1 Background and aims 14 1.5.2 Fieldwork, methodology and data 15 1.5.3 Outline 17 1.5.4 Transcription, glossing and translation 17 Chapter 2: Phonology 19 2.1 Preliminaries 19 2.2 Vowels 19 2.2.1 Phonemic vowel nasality 21 2.2.2 Phonetic description of vowel phonemes 21 2.2.3 Environmentally conditioned nasalisation of vowels 22 2.2.3.1 Directionality of nasalisation 22 2.2.3.2 Variability in degree of nasalisation 23 v vi 2.3 Consonants 23 2.3.1 Description of consonant phonemes and allophonic variation 24 2.3.1.1 Stops 24 2.3.1.2 Nasals 25 2.3.1.3 Fricatives 27 2.3.1.4 Liquids 28 2.3.1.5 Approximants 28 2.4 Phonotactics 28 2.4.1 Syllable structure and types 28 2.4.1.1 Syllable structure 28 2.4.1.2 Syllable types 29 2.4.2 Word structure 30 2.4.2.1 Monosyllabic words 30 2.4.2.2 Sesquisyllabic words 30 2.4.2.3 Disyllabic words 30 2.4.2.4 Trisyllabic words 31 2.4.3 Distribution of phonemes 31 2.4.3.1 Final syllables 32 2.4.3.2 Pre-final syllables 33 2.4.3.2.1 The penultimate syllable in sesquisyllabic words 33 2.4.3.2.2 The penultimate syllable in disyllabic words 33 2.4.3.2.3 Pre-final syllables in trisyllabic words 34 2.4.4 Reduplicative processes 35 2.4.4.1 Phonetic realisation of coda copies 35 2.4.4.2 Phonetic realisation of epenthetic vowels 36 2.4.5 Syllabification 37 2.5 Prosodic features 38 2.5.1 Stress 38 2.5.2 Tone 38 2.6 The phonology of loanwords 38 2.6.1 Phonetic adaptation 40 2.6.1.1 Prestopping of word-final nasals 40 2.6.1.2 Nasalisation of word-initial fbi 40 2.6.1.3 Palatalisation of lsi 40 2.6.2 Phonerruc replacement 40 2.6.2.1 Substitution of final syllable Ial 40 2.6.2.2 Word-final glottal stop 41 2.6.2.3 Voiceless labiodental fricative 41 2.6.3 Reorganisation of syllabic structure 42 2.6.3.1 Closure of syllables 42 2.6.3.2 Reinterpretation of word-medial vowel sequences 42 2.6.3.3 Deletion of voiced stops 43 vii 2.6.3.4 Reinterpretation of disyllabic words as sesquisyllables 43 2.6.4 Relocation of stress 43 2.7 Summary 44 Chapter 3: Word formation 45 3.1 Morphological units 45 3.1.1 Roots 45 3.1.2 Lexemes 46 3.1.3 Bases 46 3.1.4 Affixes 46 3.1.5 Clitics 46 3.2 Affixation 46 3.2.1 Inner affixation 47 3.2.1.1 Underspecified affixation 49 3.2.1.1.1 Coda copy 50 3.2.1.1.2 Onset copy + coda copy 52 3.2.1.2 Partly prespecified affixation 53 3.2.1.2.1 Prespecified consonants 53 3.2.1.2.2 Prespecified vowels 55 3.2.1.3 Prespecified affixation 58 3.2.1.3.1 Prespecified infixation 58 3.2.1.3.2 Prespecified prefixation 61 3.2.2 Outer affixation 62 3.2.2.1 Antepenultimate outer affixes 63 3.2.2.2 Flexible outer affixes 63 3.2.3 The origins of inner and outer affixation 64 3.2.4 Total reduplication 64 3.3 Cliticisation 65 3.3.1 Phonological and phonotactic characteristics 65 3.3.2 Domain and location of attachment 67 3.3.2.1 Clitics hosted by verbs 67 3.3.2.2 Clitics hosted by the first constituent of the NP 68 3.3.2.3 Clitics hosted by the first constituent of the core 68 3.3.2.4 Clitics hosted by the first constituent of the clause 69 3.3.2.5 Clitics hosted by any constituent 69 3.4 Summary 70 Chapter 4: Word classes 71 4.1 Nouns 71 4.1.1 Collective plural 74 4.1.2 Diverse plural 75 4.1.3 Unitisation 75 viii 4.1.4 Verb-to-noun derivation 77 4.1.4.1 Nominalising In! 77 4.1.4.2 Collective plural <fa> and <a> 79 4.1.4.3 Nominalising 1m! 79 4.1.5 Numeral-to-noun derivation 79 4.1.5.1 Nominalising In! 79 4.1.5.2 Collectivising coda copy 80 4.2 Classifiers 80 4.2.1 Unitisation 82 4.3 Personal pronouns 83 4.3.1 Pronominal distinctions 83 4.3.2 Allomorphs of personal pronouns 83 4.4 Demonstratives 84 4.4.1 Basic demonstratives 84 4.4.1.1 Speaker-anchored accessible R�hI 85 4.4.1.2 Addressee-anchored accessible Ron! 85 4.4.1.3 Speaker-anchored inaccessible Rani?1 85 4.4.1.4 Addressee-anchored inaccessible Run! 85 4.4.1.5 Speaker-anchored exterior Radehl 86 4.4.1.6 Addressee-anchored exterior RJli?1 86 4.4.1. 7 Superjacentnitih - ?otibl 86 4.4.1.8 Subjacent Rujih/ 86 4.4.2 Nominal demonstratives 86 4.4.3 Temporal demonstrative 97 4.5 Numerals and quantifiers 87 4.5.1 Numerals 87 4.5.2 Quantifiers 88 4.6 Interrogatives 89 4.6.1 Person-questioning Imaken! 89 4.6.2 Time-questioning Imapu?1 89 4.6.3 Item!situation!reason-questioning Imamej - mej/ 89 4.6.4 Manner-questioning Ima?acin - ?acinl 90 4.6.5 Location-questioning Ilbahl 90 4.7 Verbs 91 4.7.1 Aspect and Aktionsart 93 4.7.1.1 Imperfective 94 4.7.1.2 Progressive 96 4.7.1.3 Iterative 99 4.7.1.4 Continuative 100 4.7.1.5 Distributive 102 4.7.1.6 Reciprocal 104 ix 4.7.1.7 Affix ImJ 104 4.7.2 Causatives 105 4.7.2.1 Causative Ip-I 106 4.7.2.2 Causative Ipi-I 106 4.7.2.3 Causative Ipr-I 107 4.7.2.4 Causative Itr-I 108 4.7.2.5 Causative l<ri>1 108 4.7.3 Nounlnumeral-to-verb derivation 109 4.7.3.1 Noun-to-verb derivation 109 4.7.3.2 Numeral-to-verb derivation 109 4.7.4 Markers of modality 110 4.7.4.1 IrreaIis 110 4.7.4.2 Desiderative 112 4.7.4.3 Hortative 113 4.8 Expressives 113 4.8.1 Onomatopoeic forms 114 4.9 Prepositions 115 4.9.1 Location/instrument/subject lka=1 115 4.9.2 Goal lba=1 116 4.9.3 Source Ican=1 117 4.9.4 Contrast Id=1