The Possible Worlds of Shakespearean Drama Submitted by Samir Talib Dawood Al-Jasim To the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English, May 2014 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. (signature) ......................................................................................... 1 2 Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ 5 Acknowledgement ...................................................................................................................... 6 Note on the Texts ................................................................................................................... 7 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 8 Possible Worlds in Philosophy ........................................................................................... 10 Possible Worlds in Literature.............................................................................................. 13 Possible Worlds in Shakespeare’s Plays and Early Modern England ......................... 23 This Study.............................................................................................................................. 29 Chapter One.............................................................................................................................. 40 The Possible Worlds of Performance: The Virtual in Shakespeare’s Theatre................ 40 Theories of fictionality and the virtual in Theatre............................................................. 42 The Virtual in Renaissance Dramatic Theory .................................................................. 56 The Virtual in Shakespeare’s Theatre............................................................................... 64 The Chorus in Henry V .................................................................................................... 68 The play-within-a-play inA Midsummer Night’s Dream............................................... 73 Narration in Antony and Cleopatra ................................................................................ 79 Conclusion............................................................................................................................. 93 Chapter Two.............................................................................................................................. 97 The Actual and the Virtual in the Shakespearean Text ...................................................... 97 Virtuality in Narrative Theory .............................................................................................. 99 Rhetoric: The Art of the Virtual and Probable ................................................................ 105 Virtuality and Probability in Shakespeare ....................................................................... 113 Cymbeline........................................................................................................................ 113 Richard II.......................................................................................................................... 125 Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 138 Chapter Three......................................................................................................................... 141 The Possible Worlds of Shakespeare’s Histories.............................................................. 141 Possible Worlds of History: The Ontological and the Cognitive.................................. 143 Probability, Rhetoric and History in Early Modern England......................................... 151 ‘Naked’ vs. ‘Apparelled’ truth in Shakespeare ............................................................... 162 Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 183 Chapter Four ........................................................................................................................... 187 Counterfactuality and Contingency in Shakespearean Drama ....................................... 187 Counterfactuals, Possibility and Causality...................................................................... 189 3 Counterfactuality in Shakespeare’s Drama.................................................................... 193 The Psychological Dimension ...................................................................................... 195 The Historical Dimension .............................................................................................. 201 The Philosophical Dimension ....................................................................................... 212 The Literary Dimension.................................................................................................. 224 Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 236 Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 239 4 Abstract This study addresses the role of the possible or virtual in Shakespearean drama. It argues that the possible component constitutes an integral part of Shakespearean drama, and that they are as important as the actual events or component. To underscore its paramount importance, the study stresses two aspects of the possible in Shakespearean drama: its potentiality and its cognitive function. Potentiality highlights the power of the virtual in opening up different meanings and interpretations, suggesting alternative possibilities and creating new storylines out of the original ones. The cognitive function of the virtual or possible underlines its role in rendering the actual events and happenings more intelligible, probable and comprehensible. The study builds on the theoretical framework of possible worlds theory as well as Classical and Renaissance rhetoric; it argues that Shakespeare’s familiarity with and employment of these notions can be attributed to his rhetorical training, which formed an essential part of Elizabethan education. The study deals with the drama both as a fictional story and as theatre. On the level of theatre, it demonstrates that, despite its materiality, theatre must stimulate an imaginary virtual reality if the physical events and happenings onstage are to be fully meaningful. On the level of the fictional story, it shows that virtual or possible events form the beliefs and intentions of characters. They help to set the conflict on track and help the audience to access the characters’ inwardness. Although the possible is thought of as an ontological category, the study highlights its cognitive dimension, and argues that features of the possible even shape our image of the actual past. It addresses this question in relation to the representation of history in Shakespeare’s history plays. Finally, it deals with counterfactual statements in Shakespeare and uses a multidisciplinary approach to study their significance. 5 Acknowledgement I am deeply indebted to my first supervisor Professor Philip Schwyzer, who has provided me with intellectual engagement and ample experience in his field. His interest in and support of the project have been necessary to counter my difficult feelings of doubt and weakness. He has been the first to realize the ‘potential’ of this project and to encourage me to carry on with it. I am greatly appreciative of his patience in reading and commenting on multiple drafts of this thesis. And I am particularly grateful for my second supervisor, Dr. Edward Paleit, who joined the work half the way through, but whose insightful observations and suggestions have helped shape the thesis in its final form. Great thanks should go to Professor Marie-Laure Ryan, whose formulation of the possible worlds theory inspired me to explore its application to Shakespeare. She has been very generous in giving guidance and answering my enquiries, especially in the earlier stages of the project. I am also in debt to Professor Simon Palfrey, who happily shared with me some manuscripts of his forthcoming work, Shakespeare’s Possible Worlds. I am no less appreciative for his encouraging and generous remarks about furthering work in this area. I am also grateful to Dr Georgi Niagolov, who sent me a copy of his invaluable thesis Shakespeare’s Wordplay and Possible Worlds (2013). A big thank you is due to my family in Iraq, without whose love, encouragement and sincere support I would not have been able to arrive at this stage. My father and mother have always stood by me to pursue my study. So, a big Thank You to them. Particular gratitude is due to my wife, May, whose patience, support and encouragement have made this project possible. Last but not least, a lovely thanks are due to my kids, Sajjad and Zahraa, from whom I have