1 AN EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL INVESTIGATION INTO THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF WEARING A MASK MICK COOPER 2 I hereby declare that this thesis has not been submitted, either in the same or different form, to this or any other University for a degree. ............................................ 3 PREFACE Whilst this thesis is wholly the original work of the author, there are a number of people whose time and support has been instrumental in bringing it about. Particular thanks go to Helen Cruthers, Peter Smith, Philip Dodgson, David Hitchin, and Peter Harris. I would also like to thank all the participants who took part in these studies for their time and enthusiasm. 4 UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX Michael Barry Cooper D.Phil. AN EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL INVESTIGATION INTO THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF WEARING A MASK SUMMARY A review of the literature shows that the wearing of a mask has been hypothesised to bring about four main psychological effects: disinhibition, transformation, facilitation of the expression of aspects of the wearer’s Self, and various psycho-somatic changes. Several different explanations have been proposed as to why each of these effects come about. Using theoretical and empirical research, the thesis explores in detail the hypothesis that a mask can disinhibit its wearer, and that this disinhibition comes about because the mask-wearer feels less identifiable. The findings show that a mask can significantly reduces its wearer’s feelings of identifiability, and that it can also significantly reduce its wearer’s public self- awareness as a consequence of changes in attentional focus. However, the empirical evidence suggests that the mask’s disinhibiting effect is limited to situations in which an individual wants to behave in a particular way, but inhibits that behaviour out of a concern with ‘mask- able’ facets of their public self. Concomitantly, the findings suggest that, if an individual wants to behave in a way for which they require ‘mask-able’ facets of the public self, then the wearing of a mask may be experienced as inhibiting. This thesis also examines the hypothesis that a mask can transform its wearer, and that this occurs through the self-attribution process outlined by Kellerman and Laird (1982). The thesis provides strong empirical support for both these hypotheses, showing that the wearing of a mask can make individuals feel less like their usual self and more like the character represented in the mask. However, the empirical evidence suggests that this latter effect only occurs under conditions in which an individual is specifically focused on their masked appearance. 5 A final chapter discusses the theoretical and applied implications of these findings, with specific reference to the use of masks in therapeutic practice. 6 INDEX CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 12 1.1 DEFINITIONS 12 1.1.1 ‘Psychological’ 12 1.1.2 ‘Mask’ 12 1.1.3 ‘Wearing’ 14 1.2 RATIONALE 14 1.3 OUTLINE 15 CHAPTER TWO: THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECT OF WEARING A MASK: A LITERATURE REVIEW 17 2.1 DISINHIBITION 18 2.1.1 Anonymity 20 2.1.2 ‘Dramatic License’ 21 2.1.3 ‘Dramatic Distance’ 22 2.1.4 ‘Container’ 24 2.1.5 Increase in Facial Expressiveness 25 2.1.6 Reduction in Concern About Facial Vulnerability25 2.1.7 Pre-civilised appearance 26 2.1.8 Protection 26 2.1.9 Transformation 26 2.2 TRANSFORMATION 27 2.2.1 Non-physiological Transformations of the ‘Face’34 2.2.2 Physiological Transformations of the Face 36 2.2.3 ‘Unconscious’ Transformation 36 2.2.4 ‘Motors’ of the Mask 37 2.2.5 Observer Feedback 37 2.2.6 Disinhibition 37 2.3 FACILITATING THE EXPRESSION OF ‘ASPECTS OF THE SELF’ 38 2.3.1 Projection 38 2.3.2 Mask as Symbol 38 2.4 PSYCHO-SOMATIC CHANGES 40 2.4.1 Reduction in Facial Expression 40 2.4.2 ‘Body-image’ Stress 41 2.4.3 Miscellaneous Psycho-somatic Changes 41 2.5 SUMMARY 41 CHAPTER THREE. DISINHIBITION AND THE ANONYMITY- HYPOTHESIS: A LITERATURE REVIEW 43 3.1 THE DISINHIBITION HYPOTHESIS 43 3.2 THE ANONYMITY HYPOTHESIS 48 3.2.1 Mask-wearing and Anonymity 48 3.2.2 Anonymity and Disinhibition 50 3.2.2.1 Deindividuation 50 7 3.2.2.2 Self-awareness as mediating variable 53 3.2.2.3 Criticisms of differential self-awareness theory 56 3.2.2.3.1 Public self-awareness as focus of attention 57 3.2.2.3.2 Is the public self ideal and identifiability always inhibiting? 58 3.2.2.3.3 Social identity theory 59 3.2.2.3.4 Individual differences 61 3.3 SUMMARY 63 CHAPTER FOUR: AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECT OF WEARING A MASK ON FEELINGS OF IDENTIFIABILITY, PUBLIC SELF-AWARENESS AND INHIBITION 65 4.1 INTRODUCTION 65 4.1.1 Aims 65 4.1.2 Methodological Issues 65 4.1.2.1 Experimental or non-experimental design? 65 4.1.2.2 Laboratory- or Field-experiment? 68 4.1.2.3 Qualitative or quantitative measures? 71 4.1.2.4 Self-reports or observational measures? 75 4.1.2.5 Between-participant or within-participant design? 76 4.1.2.6 Demand characteristics and deception 78 4.1.2.7 Experimenter-expectancy effects 83 4.2 METHOD 85 4.2.1 Design 85 4.2.2 Participants 86 4.2.3 Apparatus and Materials 86 4.2.4 Procedure 90 4.2.5 Methods of Analysis 94 4.2.5.1 Quantitative 94 4.2.5.2 Qualitative 98 4.3 RESULTS 101 4.3.1 Quantitative 101 4.3.2 Qualitative 106 4.3.2.1 Identifiability 106 4.3.2.2 Public self-awareness 109 4.3.2.3 Inhibition 116 4.3.2.4 Transformation 120 4.3.2.5 Miscellaneous Effects 121 4.3.2.6 Not much difference 122 4.3.2.7 Experimental design 122 4.3.2.8 Expectations 122 4.4 DISCUSSION 124 4.4.1 Hypothesis one: The wearing of a mask, under conditions in which an individual’s identifiability is dependent on ‘immediate’ facial recognition, will lead to a reduction in feelings of identifiability 124 4.4.2 Hypothesis two: The wearing of a mask, under conditions in which it reduces an individual’s 8 identifiability, and under conditions in which positive external events are not forthcoming, will contribute to a reduction in feelings of public self- awareness 126 4.4.3 Hypothesis three: The wearing of a mask, under conditions in which it reduces an individual’s public self-awareness, and under conditions in which an individual wishes to behave in ways that are contrary to their public self-standard, will have a disinhibiting effect 131 4.4.4 Other Findings 135 4.4.5 General Methodological Issues 137 4.5 SUMMARY 142 CHAPTER FIVE. MASKING, INHIBITION AND DISINHIBITION: A WORKSHOP STUDY 143 5.1 INTRODUCTION 143 5.1.1 Aims 143 5.2 METHOD 144 5.2.1 Design 144 5.2.2 Participants 144 5.2.3 Apparatus and Materials 144 5.2.4 Procedure 146 5.2.5 Method of Analysis 148 5.2.5.1 Quantitative 148 5.2.5.2 Qualitative 148 5.3 RESULTS 148 5.3.1 Quantitative 148 5.3.2 Qualitative 151 5.3.2.1 Inhibition 151 5.3.2.2 Transformation 153 5.3.3.3 Other Findings 155 5.4 DISCUSSION 155 5.4.1 Hypothesis one: If an individual has a desire to behave in a particular way, but inhibits that 155 behaviour out of a concern for mask-able facets of their public self, then the wearing of a mask, under conditions in which it reduces those concerns, can be predicted to have a disinhibiting effect. However, if an individual wishes to behave in a way for which they ‘require’ mask-able facets of their public self, then the wearing of a mask can be predicted to have an inhibiting effect 155 5.4.2 Transformation 159 5.4.3 Other Findings 160 5.4.4 General Methodological Issues 161 5.5 SUMMARY 162 CHAPTER SIX: TRANSFORMATION AND SELF-PERCEPTION 164 6.1 TRANSFORMATION 164 6.1.1 Direct Empirical Support 164 9 6.1.2 Facial Coverings 166 6.1.3 Transformations of the Face Which do not Directly Involve Physiological Feedback 170 6.1.4 Clothes 172 6.1.5 Transformations of the Face Which Do Directly Involve Physiological Feedback 174 6.1.6 Summary 175 6.2 TRANSFORMATION AND SELF-PERCEPTION 175 6.2.1 Self-attribution and Facial Feedback 176 6.2.2 Facial-feedback and Mask-feedback 178 6.2.3 Situational Variables 179 6.2.4 Individual Difference Variables 180 6.3 SUMMARY 182 CHAPTER SEVEN: AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION INTO THE TRANSFORMATIVE EFFECT OF WEARING A MASK 183 7.1 INTRODUCTION 183 7.1.1 Aims 183 7.1.2 Methodological Issues 183 7.2 METHOD 187 7.2.1 Design 187 7.2.2 Participants 187 7.2.3 Apparatus and Materials 188 7.2.4 Procedure 193 7.2.5 Methods of Analysis 194 7.2.5.1 Quantitative 194 7.2.5.2 Qualitative 195 7.3 RESULTS 197 7.3.1 Quantitative 197 7.3.2 Qualitative 203 7.4 DISCUSSION 206 7.4.1 Hypothesis one: The wearing of a mask, under conditions in which an individual is aware of their ‘facial’ appearance, will lead to a transformation in the direction represented by the mask 206 7.4.2 Hypothesis two: The wearing of a mask, under conditions in which an individual is aware that their face is no longer their ‘face’, will lead to a transformation away from the usual ‘self’ 212 7.4.3 Hypothesis three: Individuals reliant on self- produced cues will experience a greater degree of transformation when wearing a mask than individuals reliant on situationally-produced cues 214 7.4.4 Hypothesis four: Individuals high in public self-consciousness will experience a greater degree of transformation when wearing a mask than individuals low in public self-consciousness 215 7.4.5 Other Findings 216 7.4.4 General Methodological Issues 217 7.4.5 SUMMARY 221 10 CHAPTER EIGHT: CHANGES IN OTHER-PERCEPTION AS A FUNCTION OF THE OTHER WEARING A MASK 222 8.1 INTRODUCTION 222 8.2 METHOD 222 8.2.1 Design 222 8.2.2 Participants 223 8.2.3 Materials 223 8.2.4 Procedure 224 8.3 RESULTS 225 8.4 DISCUSSION 226 8.4.1 Hypothesis one: The wearing of a mask will transform how that mask-wearer is perceived, such that observers