MAKING MEANING OUT OF MOUNTAINS: SKIING, THE ENVIRONMENT AND ECO-POLITICS by MARK CHRISTOPHER JOHN STODDART M.A., University of Victoria, 2004 B.A., Athabasca University, 2002 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Sociology) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) June 2008 © Mark Christopher John Stoddart 2008 ii Abstract This research provides a sociological analysis of skiing as a form of outdoor recreation and nature tourism in British Columbia, Canada. A qualitative multi-method approach is used, combining discourse analysis, interviews with skiers, and unobtrusive field observation at Whistler Blackcomb and Whitewater ski resorts. Through a focus on discourse, embodied interactions among humans and non-humans, and flows of power, this research describes an environmental ambiguity at the centre of skiing. There is a tension between interpretations of skiing as an environmentally-sustainable practice and notions of skiing as an environmental and social problem. Skiing is based on the symbolic consumption of nature and is understood by many participants as a way of entering into a meaningful relationship with the non-human environment. However, interpretations of skiing as a non-consumptive use of non-human nature are too simple. Social movement groups disrupt pro-environmental discourses of skiing by challenging the sport’s ecological and social legitimacy. Many skiers also articulate a self- reflexive environmental critique of their sport. In these instances, skiing is brought into the realm of politics. Recreational forms of interaction with the non-human environment tend to be at the periphery of environmental sociology. At the same time, sport sociologists tend to focus on the social dimensions of outdoor recreation, while bracketing out non-human nature. This research brings these two fields of inquiry into dialogue with each other, thereby addressing this double lacuna. iii Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... iii List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vi List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. vii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... viii Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER I Introduction: The Attractive Economy of Skiing ..................................................1 1.1 Why a Sociology of Skiing? ................................................................................................1 1.2 Researching Skiing in British Columbia ..............................................................................5 1.3 Previous Research on Skiing and Snowboarding ..............................................................16 1.4. The Layout of the Dissertation .........................................................................................32 CHAPTER II Skiing Naturecultures and the Mountainous Sublime ........................................35 2.1 Discourse and the Construction of Landscapes .................................................................35 2.2 Ski Industry Constructions of the Mountain Landscape ....................................................42 2.3 Skiers’ Interpretations of the Landscape ............................................................................59 2.4 Backcountry versus Resort Landscapes .............................................................................68 2.5 Skiing and the Contested Landscape .................................................................................73 2.6 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................80 CHAPTER III Cyborg Skiers and Snowy Collectives .............................................................85 3.1 Cyborgs and Collectives ....................................................................................................85 3.2 The Skier as Cyborg ...........................................................................................................91 3.3 “Good Skiing” Narratives: Social Networks and Good Snow ............................................99 3.4 Animals as Significant Others .........................................................................................109 3.5 Machines and the “Nature” of Skiing ..............................................................................114 iv 3.6 Powder Nomads: Networks of Tourism and Migration ...................................................122 3.7 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................127 CHAPTER IV The Eco-Politics of Snow ...............................................................................134 4.1 Power, Bio-power and the Informatics of Domination .....................................................135 4.2 Skiers and Eco-politics ....................................................................................................140 4.3 Skiing as an Environmentalist Practice ............................................................................147 4.4 Skiing as an Environmental Problem ...............................................................................154 4.5 Skiing and Social Power ..................................................................................................160 4.6 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................184 CHAPTER V Discussion: Toward a Political Ecology of Skiing ..........................................192 5.1 Summary of Key Findings ................................................................................................193 5.2 Skiing, Sport and Environmental Sociology ....................................................................201 5.3 Directions for Further Research .......................................................................................211 5.4 Implications for an Eco-politics of Skiing .......................................................................216 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................222 Appendix I Research Design and Methodology .....................................................................251 Research Design .................................................................................................................... 251 Sampling and Data Collection ...............................................................................................257 Data Analysis ..........................................................................................................................273 Ethical Considerations ...........................................................................................................275 A Self-reflexive Epilogue ......................................................................................................278 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................284 Appendix II Textual Archives for Discourse Analysis ...........................................................285 Appendix III Interview Recruitment Materials ........................................................................296 v Appendix IV Comparison of Interview Sample and 2001 Census Profiles (Vancouver, Whistler, Nelson) .......................................300 Appendix V Interview Schedule .............................................................................................305 Appendix VI Field Observation Protocol ................................................................................312 Appendix VII NVIVO7 Coding Scheme ..................................................................................313 Appendix VIII Behavioural Research Ethics Board Certificates of Approval ..........................323 Appendix IX Interview Consent Form ...................................................................................326 vi List of Tables Table 2.1 Interview participants’ critiques of ski magazines .......................................................60 Table 3.1 Animal members of skiing collectives, as cited by interview participants ................111 Table 4.1 Environmental issues raised by interview participants ..............................................142 Table A1.1 Sampling matrix for discourse analysis ..................................................................259 Table A1.2 Sampling matrix for interviews ...............................................................................264 Table A1.3 Sampling matrix for field notes ...............................................................................271 Table A4.1