THE NEW INSURGENCIES AND MASS UPRISINGS IN AFRICA AND INTERNATIONAL INVOLVEMENT: SELECTED CASE STUDIES By SAMUEL ADOTEY ANUM A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR PHILOSOPHIAE: POLITICAL SCIENCE in the Department of Political Sciences at the UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA FACULTY OF HUMANITIES PROMOTER: PROF. M. HOUGH MARCH 2017 © University of Pretoria ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my sincere appreciation to Professor M. Hough for his immeasurable patience, kindness and guidance throughout the study period. Professor Michael Hough, I really appreciate you. I thank Mrs Wilma Martin for her kind assistance and thoughtfulness during the period. My appreciation also go to my wife and children for their support and encouragement. i © University of Pretoria TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 1 1. IDENTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH THEME ............................................................. 1 2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................. 4 3. LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................. 5 4. FORMULATION AND DEMARCATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM ..........................10 5. METHODOLOGY AND SOURCES .................................................................................12 6. CHAPTER STRUCTURE ...............................................................................................14 CHAPTER TWO: MASS UPRISINGS, INSURGENCIES AND RELATED TERMS: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ..................................................................................17 1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................17 2. DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS .......................................................................................17 2.1 UPRISING ...................................................................................................... 17 2.2 MASS UPRISING ............................................................................................. 19 2.3 INSURGENCY ................................................................................................. 20 2.4 RELATED CONCEPTS ...................................................................................... 22 3. VIOLENCE ESCALATION LADDER ...............................................................................24 4. A TYPOLOGY OF INSURGENCIES ...............................................................................26 4.1 FORMS OF INSURGENCY ................................................................................ 26 4.2 GOALS ........................................................................................................... 29 4.3 MOTIVATION ................................................................................................. 30 4.4 STRATEGY OF WARFARE ................................................................................ 34 4.5 LEADERSHIP .................................................................................................. 37 4.6 DURATION .................................................................................................... 39 4.7 EXTERNAL SUPPORT ...................................................................................... 39 5. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MASS UPRISINGS AND INSURGENCIES .............................40 6. CAUSES OF MASS UPRISINGS AND INSURGENCIES ..................................................44 6.1 REMOTE CAUSES ........................................................................................... 44 6.1.1 POPULATION GROWTH ............................................................................ 44 6.1.2 ETHNIC AND RACIAL CLEAVAGES ............................................................. 45 6.1.3 LAND OWNERSHIP ................................................................................... 46 6.1.4 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................... 46 ii © University of Pretoria 6.1.5 RELATIVE DEPRIVATION .......................................................................... 47 6.1.6 OTHER CAUSES ........................................................................................ 48 6.2 IMMEDIATE CAUSES ...................................................................................... 48 6.2.1 LEGITIMACY ............................................................................................ 48 6.2.2 ECONOMIC DOWNTURN ........................................................................... 48 6.2.3 NATURE OF THE REGIME ......................................................................... 49 6.2.4 POLITICAL CHANGE ................................................................................. 49 6.2.5 DOMINO EFFECT ...................................................................................... 50 7. CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................50 CHAPTER THREE: INTERNATIONAL INVOLVEMENT AND MILITARY INTERVENTION IN DOMESTIC CONFLICTS ...........................................................53 1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................53 2. DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS .......................................................................................54 2.1 INTERNATIONAL INVOLVEMENT ..................................................................... 54 2.2 INTERVENTION .............................................................................................. 56 2.2.1 MILITARY INTERVENTION ........................................................................ 57 2.2.2 HUMANITARIAN MILITARY INTERVENTION ............................................... 58 2.2.3 THE RESPONSIBILITY TO PROTECT .......................................................... 60 2.3 MOTIVATION AND GOALS OF INTERVENTION ................................................. 63 2.4 UNILATERAL AND MULTILATERAL INTERVENTIONS ........................................ 65 2.5 FORMS OF INTERVENTION ............................................................................. 68 3. MECHANISMS OF MULTILATERAL INTERVENTION ....................................................69 4. OUTCOMES OF INTERVENTION .................................................................................71 5. INTERVENTION IN AFRICA ........................................................................................77 6. CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................82 CHAPTER FOUR: OVERVIEW OF INSURGENCIES IN AFRICA IN THE POST-COLD WAR PERIOD .........................................................................................84 1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................84 2. INSURGENCIES IN AFRICA DURING THE COLD WAR ................................................85 2.1 THE COLONIAL PERIOD ................................................................................. 85 2.2 POST-COLONIAL PERIOD ............................................................................... 86 3. THE POST-COLD WAR INSURGENCIES ......................................................................89 iii © University of Pretoria 4. CRIMINAL INSURGENCIES .........................................................................................92 4.1 THE LORD’S RESISTANCE ARMY ..................................................................... 92 4.1.1 BACKGROUND .......................................................................................... 93 4.1.2 FORMATION OF THE LORD’S RESISTANCE ARMY ....................................... 93 4.1.3 ORGANIZATION, MODE OF WARFARE AND TARGETS ................................. 95 4.2 THE REVOLUTIONARY UNITED FRONT ............................................................ 98 4.2.1 SIERRA LEONE-BACKGROUND .................................................................. 98 4.2.2 FORMATION OF THE REVOLUTIONARY UNITED FRONT ........................... 101 4.2.3 ORGANIZATION, MOBILIZATION AND RECRUITMENT .............................. 103 4.2.4 METHOD OF FIGHTING .......................................................................... 104 4.3 BOKO HARAM .............................................................................................. 106 4.3.1 BACKGROUND ........................................................................................ 106 4.3.2 FORMATION OF BOKO HARAM ................................................................ 107 4.3.3 CAUSES OF THE UPRISING ..................................................................... 108 4.3.4 POST-YUSUF BOKO HARAM .................................................................... 109 4.3.5 TARGETS, METHODS AND TACTICS ........................................................ 110 4.4 AL-SHABAAB ................................................................................................ 114 4.4.1 BACKGROUND ........................................................................................ 114 4.4.2 THE RISE OF AL-SHABAAB ...................................................................... 115 4.4.3 ORGANIZATION, RECRUITMENT AND MOBILIZATION .............................