Dissertation A Critical Assessment of the Socio- Economic Reintegration Process of Ex-Combatants Ten Years After the War in Sierra Leone Ibrahim Bangura Email: [email protected] Abstract: This study examines the current socio-economic status of the ex-combatants 10 years after the confl ict in Sierra Leone. It examines the job opportunities, political space, relationship with community members, challenges faced, social networks involved in, relationship with former colleagues, access to land and other issues that are signifi cant in the reintegration process of ex-combatants. It further studies the national socio-economic environment and how ex-comba- tants are faring in the overall post-war recovery process in Sierra Leone. Special focus lies on the Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-Combatants (DDR) programme which was part of the Lome Peace Agreement signed in 1999. The study also comes up with recommen- dations as to how the challenges currently faced by ex-combatants could be overcome. A Critical Assessment of the Socio- Economic Reintegration Process of Ex- Combatants Ten Years after the War in Sierra Leone Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Economics (Dr. rer. oec.) at HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management Leipzig, Germany submitted by Ibrahim Bangura Leipzig, October 18, 2013 First Assessor: Prof. Dr. Arnis Vilks HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management Chair of Microeconomics Second Assessor: Prof. Dr. Andreas Suchanek HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management Chair of Economic and Business Ethics Dedication This thesis is dedicated to people of Sierra Leone. The journey has not been an easy one but we are now seeing the light at the end of the tunnel. My heart and prayers are always with you. 2 Acknowledgement The journey of undertaking my doctoral study promised to be slow and painful from the outset, but the support and encouragement provided by my supervisor Prof. Dr. Arnis Vilks propelled me to complete the process. The precise emails and regular meetings gave me a sense of direction whenever I felt I had lost my way. Also, his great ability to present alternative perspectives helped to broaden my understanding and develop the ability to look at the small as well as big picture. Many thanks Prof. Vilks, I am forever grateful. I would also like to thank several people for the support provided during the three years of my doctoral studies. First of all the HHL family, Iris Petzschmann, Prof. Dr. Althammer, Prof. Dr. Andreas Suchanek, Raluca Modoiu, and all the very helpful people who I have not named. Thank you for the support and kindly note that it was useful to me, every step of the way. My sincere appreciation goes to all those that I met during my field studies. Your stories were carefully noted and I tried my very best to ensure that they are presented as you told them. Always know that you have a special place in my heart, and in my prayers. Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for the love and support provided. You were the rock I leaned on when the going got tough. 3 Table of Contents Dedication ............................................................................................................................................................... 1 Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................................................. 3 Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................................... 4 Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................... 5 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 8 2. Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................................................... 11 3. Context .............................................................................................................................................................. 25 3.1 Origins of the war in Sierra Leone .............................................................................................................. 25 3.2 Factions involved in the conflict ................................................................................................................. 31 3.3 Recruitment patterns.................................................................................................................................. 37 3.4 Peace Agreements ...................................................................................................................................... 39 3.5 Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-combatants ......................................................... 46 4. Research Methodology ..................................................................................................................................... 58 4.1 Research Question ...................................................................................................................................... 58 4.2 Conceptual Scheme .................................................................................................................................... 59 4.3 Operationalization of Major Concepts ....................................................................................................... 60 4.4 Methodology .............................................................................................................................................. 62 4.5 Location of the Research ............................................................................................................................ 63 4.6 Unit of Analysis ........................................................................................................................................... 64 5. Findings ............................................................................................................................................................. 66 5.1.1 Current social status of former male combatants ................................................................................... 71 5.1.2 Current social status of former female combatants ................................................................................ 76 5.1.2 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 83 5.2. Current economic status of former combatants ....................................................................................... 85 5.2.1 Former Male Combatants ................................................................................................................... 85 5.2.2 Former Female Combatants ................................................................................................................ 94 5.2.3 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 102 6. Conclusions and recommendations ................................................................................................................ 105 6.1 Final Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 105 6.2 Recommendations .................................................................................................................................... 109 7. Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................... 116 8. Annex .............................................................................................................................................................. 123 Annex 1: Research Questionnaire .................................................................................................................. 123 Annex 2: Organisations visited during field consultations .............................................................................. 127 Annex 3. Declaration of authorship ................................................................................................................ 129 4 Abstract Sierra Leone was faced with a decade of a very bloody civil conflict. The conflict led to the mutilation and death of thousands of Sierra Leoneans with over a million becoming either internally displaced or leaving the country to become refugees in other countries. The war was started on the 23 rd of March, 1991 by the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) but other factions such as the Civil Defence Force (CDF), the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) and the so-called West Side Boys became key actors as the conflict progressed. The Lome Peace Agreement signed in 1999 established as one of its components the setting implementation of a Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-Combatants (DDR) programme. At the end of the DDR in 2005 over 76,000 ex-combatants from the different factions were reintegrated into their communities of choice or origin. Coupled with this, they were assisted with reintegration