Undan Snjóbreiðunni (What Lies Beneath the Snow) Revealing the contributions of Icelandic pioneer women to adult education in Manitoba 1875 – 1914 by Jo-Anne Weir A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF EDUCATION Department of Educational Administration, Foundations and Psychology University of Manitoba Winnipeg Copyright © 2007 by Jo-Anne Weir ii Abstract Though women have been involved in adult education throughout Canada’s history, their contributions have gone unrecorded and lie hidden “beneath the snow”. This study used a qualitative historical research design to metaphorically “melt the snow”, to reveal both the women and their educational activities in five Icelandic pioneer settlements in Manitoba 1875-1914. Guided by an adaptation of the Kidd (1979) conceptual framework, data from primary and secondary sources was categorized onto a matrix for coding and analysis according to type of learning (formal, nonformal and informal) as well as seven areas of influence (people, events, ideas, outside Canada, communications, geography & climate and immigrant peoples). This process resulted in findings that foregrounded five Icelandic adult educators and revealed six themes of involvement by Icelandic pioneer women. The findings demonstrate the need to reexamine the adult education definitions and frameworks so that the contributions of women may be documented and valued. iii Acknowledgements I gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the following women: Dr. Marlene Atleo, advisor, provided expertise, encouragement and sound advice throughout this project. She was the key person to help shape this research from idea to reality. The day she became a part of this project was the turning point of this research. Drs. Carolyn Crippen and Roberta Woodgate, committee members, provided valuable feedback and a belief in the value of this research. Sigrid Johnson and Dr. Valdine Clemens, member checks, provided their expertise in Manitoba Icelandic history and editing skills. Their involvement undoubtedly improved the accuracy and quality of the final document. The final acknowledgement is reserved for Karen. Her support, and belief in me have made this thesis possible. Because of Karen, I have had the treasured luxury of time and freedom to pursue this dream. iv Dedication To the memory of my great grandmother; Margaret Johnson (Margrét Friðbjarnardottir,1874-1918) who emigrated from Iceland in 1891 to eventually settle in Glenboro, Manitoba. This thesis is a tribute to her and the Icelandic pioneer women of Manitoba whose history has inspired and sustained me in this project. v Table of Contents Chapter 1....................................................................................................................1 Introduction.................................................................................................................1 Problem Statement .................................................................................................3 Background.............................................................................................................4 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................21 Conceptual Framework.........................................................................................21 Research Questions .............................................................................................26 Definitions .............................................................................................................27 Delimitations .........................................................................................................28 Limitations.............................................................................................................30 Personal Interest...................................................................................................31 Chapter 2..................................................................................................................32 Literature Review......................................................................................................32 Adult Education History in Canada .......................................................................32 History of Manitoba (1870 – 1914)........................................................................42 History of Icelandic Immigrants in Manitoba..........................................................47 Chapter 3..................................................................................................................57 Methodology.............................................................................................................57 Methodology .........................................................................................................57 Method..................................................................................................................58 Data Collection......................................................................................................59 Sampling Strategy.................................................................................................61 vi Data Analysis........................................................................................................63 Trustworthiness.....................................................................................................66 Chapter 4..................................................................................................................68 Findings....................................................................................................................68 Melting the Snow: Five Icelandic adult educators revealed ..................................73 Teachers’ training: Extending the Icelandic value of education.............................86 Learning the English language: Integrating learning with work .............................94 Women’s suffrage: Continuing the pursuit of equality in a new land .....................99 Canada’s postal service: A link to the outside world ...........................................106 Manitoba’s geography and climate: Harsh teachers ...........................................110 The Icelandic Women’s Society and the Ladies’ Aid societies: A social welfare network ...............................................................................................................115 Chapter 5................................................................................................................125 Discussion of the Findings......................................................................................125 Overview of the Study.........................................................................................125 Summary of Findings ..........................................................................................126 Implications.........................................................................................................131 Recommendations ..............................................................................................136 References .............................................................................................................139 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Comparison of the five Icelandic communities in Manitoba 1875 – 1914………………………………………………………72 Table 2. Icelandic Ladies’ Aid societies in Manitoba 1885 – 1914………120 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Conceptual framework for examining the adult educational activities of women in Canada……………………………………………….....25 Figure 2. Map of early Icelandic settlements in Manitoba 1875-1914……..29 Figure 3. Matrix for coding and analysis of adult educational activities of Icelandic pioneer women in Manitoba 1875-1914………………………...64 ix List of Copyrighted Material for which Permission was Obtained 1. Conceptual framework for examining the adult educational activities of women in Canada, p. 20. Adapted from Kidd, J.R., (1979). Some Preliminary Notes Concerning an Enquiry into the Heritage of Canadian Adult Education (Occasional Papers in Continuing Education No. 9). Vancouver, Canada: University of British Columbia, Centre for Continuing Education. 1 Chapter 1 This introductory chapter provides the foundation to begin an inquiry into the adult education activities of the Icelandic pioneer women in Manitoba during the 1875 – 1914 time period. The chapter begins by outlining the research problem that led to this study. It goes on to describe the background information needed to understand the problem and state the purpose of the study. The conceptual framework which structured and organized this study is described next, followed by the research questions, definitions, delimitations and limitations. The chapter concludes by identifying the researcher’s personal interest in conducting this investigation. Introduction Women have been involved in adult education activities throughout Canada’s history, yet researchers note their absence within the recorded history (Butterwick, 1998, p. 104; Dewar, 1998, p. 360; Selman, Cooke, Selman & Dampier, 1998, p. 3). Dewar (1998) metaphorically characterizes the experiences of women in Canadian adult education history as being “covered by a blanket of snow” (p. 360). The absence of women’s stories creates an incomplete history of adult education in Canada. The result