University of Nevada, Reno Writing of the Americas A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in English by Jaycob A. Nolte Dr. Ian Clayton/Thesis Advisor Dr. Valerie Fridland/Thesis Co-Advisor May, 2021 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL We recommend that the thesis prepared under our supervision by Jaycob Nolte entitled Writing of the Americas be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Dr. Ian Clayton Advisor Dr. Valerie Fridland Co-advisor Dr. Ignacio Montoya Committee Member Dr. Jenanne Ferguson Graduate School Representative David W. Zeh, Ph.D., Dean Graduate School May, 2021 i Abstract This paper aims to highlight the different forms of writing within the Americas, establish connections between the systems, and discuss the impact of European colonization. Writing systems within the American Continents contain a vast array of different indigenous systems that first started around 1000-900 BCE and spread throughout Mesoamerica into varying communities innovated to make their writing systems. The writing systems discussed are Olmec, Zapotec, Maya, Epi-Olmec, Teotihuacan, Aztec, Mixtec, Khipus, Cree, Cherokee, and Inuktitut writing systems. Primary sources of each system, secondary sources that discuss and synthesize these primary sources, policies, laws, and other cultural materials discussed within these indigenous communities are used throughout the paper to further the discussion. The impact of colonization on the writing systems of the Americas creates a division between pre-and post-contact systems that show the extent of colonial powers. This paper also discusses the writing systems that are still in use and their community's development of revitalization tools and resources. The writing systems of the Americas are an integral part of history, showcasing the people who have lived there for many thousands of years. Keywords: Writing Systems, Mesoamerica, Colonization, Abugida, Logographic Writing ii Table of Contents Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1 – Writing Systems in Context ......................................................................................... 4 1.1 Writing Systems ..................................................................................................................... 4 1.2 Writing in Other Parts of the World ....................................................................................... 7 Chapter 2 – Development of Writing in Mesoamerica .................................................................... 9 2.1 Olmec ................................................................................................................................... 11 2.2 Zapotec ................................................................................................................................. 13 2.3 Maya .................................................................................................................................... 16 2.4 Epi-Olmec ............................................................................................................................ 21 2.5 Teotihuacan .......................................................................................................................... 23 2.6 Aztec .................................................................................................................................... 25 2.7 Mixtec .................................................................................................................................. 28 Chapter 3 – Development of Writing Systems in South America ................................................. 31 3.1 Khipus .................................................................................................................................. 32 Chapter 4 – Development of Writing Systems in North America ................................................. 36 4.1 Cherokee .............................................................................................................................. 36 4.2 Cree (Nêhiyaw) .................................................................................................................... 40 4.3 Inuktitut ................................................................................................................................ 43 Chapter 5 – Impact of Colonization ............................................................................................... 46 5.1 Mesoamerica ........................................................................................................................ 46 5.2 South America ..................................................................................................................... 49 5.3 North America ..................................................................................................................... 50 Chapter 6 – Current Writing Systems and Their Futures ............................................................... 54 6.1 Cherokee Syllabary .............................................................................................................. 55 6.2 Cree Syllabary ...................................................................................................................... 57 6.3 Inuktitut Syllabary ............................................................................................................... 59 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 61 Appendix A: Code for Map of Writing Systems ........................................................................... 63 References ...................................................................................................................................... 67 iii List of Tables TABLE 1: Breakdown of Writing Systems ..................................................................................... 6 TABLE 2: Mesoamerica Writing ................................................................................................... 10 iv List of Figures Figure 1: Evolution of the Cuneiform Script showing the line characters that were marked on the outside of envelopes into the marks made with styluses (Dedovic 2019). ...................................... 7 Figure 2: 3D printed Oracle bone with early Chinese writing inscribed on it (Augenstein 2016). 8 Figure 3: Drawing by David Mora-Marin showing surviving lines, and cracks that have damaged certain lines (Mora-Marin 2020). ................................................................................................... 12 Figure 4: Frequency list revised for Mora-Marin (2020). .............................................................. 13 Figure 5: Zapotec year signs, year bearers and number coefficients (Marcus 1992). .................... 15 Figure 6: Cross Section of Maya grapheme table (Coe 2005). ...................................................... 17 Figure 7: Grapheme representing “ti k’ak’- al jul” meaning “with a fiery spear.” (Coe 2005). .... 18 Figure 8: Section of Maya Numbers Depicting both numerical and deities that represent each number (Coe 2005). ....................................................................................................................... 19 Figure 9: Reading order of Maya graphemes (Coe 2005).............................................................. 21 Figure 10: Drawing of La Mojarra Stela (Justeson 1993).............................................................. 22 Figure 11: Teotihuacan graphemes with Numerical Coefficients (Taube 2000) ........................... 24 Figure 12: Page from Codex Borbonicus (retrieved from Famsi.org). .......................................... 26 Figure 13: Numbers from various codices (c-Aubin, d-Quinatzin, e/f-Mendoza) (retrieved from Boone 2000). .................................................................................................................................. 27 Figure 15: Image of the Codex Vindobonensis (Codex Yuta Tnoho) (retrieved from Famsi.org) 29 Figure 14: Example of Boustrophedon Reading order (Jansen 2010) ........................................... 30 Figure 16: Khipu construction Elements (Urton 2003) ................................................................. 32 Figure 17: Wrap counts on two axsus from Candelaria. (Gilsdorf 2008). Showing the complexity and understanding of numbers textile makers had in order to provide accurate and precise textiles. ....................................................................................................................................................... 34 Figure 18: Depiction of Sequoyah’s Syllabary in alphabetical order. (Scancarelli 1996) ............. 37 Figure 19: Depiction of syllabary used in a classroom on a clock. (Bender 2002) ....................... 39 Figure 20: Star Chart depicting the different Spirit Markers (University nuhelot’įne thaiyots’į nistameyimâkanak Blue Quills. n.d.) ............................................................................................. 40 Figure 21: Art fixture in River lot 11 made by Amy Malbeuf. (Fish 2017) .................................. 42 Figure 22: Depicts a sign in Iqaluit, NU, CA with both Inuktitut and English Source: Nunatsiaq.com ..............................................................................................................................