STRAPPED: A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF BLACK WOMEN AND ARMED RESISTANCE, 1959-1979 By: JASMIN A. YOUNG A Dissertation submitted to the School of Graduate Studies Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in History written under the direction of Deborah Gray White and approved by _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ New Brunswick, New Jersey MAY, 2018 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Strapped: A Historical Analysis of Black Women and Armed Resistance, 1959-1979 by JASMIN A. YOUNG Dissertation Director: Deborah Gray White “Strapped: A Historical Analysis of Black Women and Armed Resistance, 1959-1979” is an intellectual and cultural study that broadens our understanding of the Black freedom movement by analyzing Black women who engaged in armed resistance from 1959 to 1979. I argue Black women increasingly embraced the tactic of armed resistance as a tool to achieve full freedom in post-World War II America. This work is significant because it offers a departure from previous scholars who have overwhelmingly assumed that armed resistance was the primary domain of Black men including Tim Tyson and Lance Hill. My doctoral project offers a different interpretation by separating armed self-defense from masculinity. I draw from and build on the histories of Black women, gender theories, and social movement scholarship to show that armed resistance was prevalent among Black women. Using a vast array of primary source materials such as newspapers, interviews, organizational documents, and government surveillance records, I analyze how the government's response to citizens’ demands for civil and human rights shaped the tactics Black women employed, including armed resistance. I trace the evolution of the philosophy of armed resistance in the mid-twentieth century. ii Acknowledgements It is with great pleasure that I take the opportunity to write the acknowledgements to my dissertation. First, I have to acknowledge how God’s wonderful and masterful plan for my life forced me to trust in the process when everything seemed to be out of sorts and especially when I wanted to give up. Writing a dissertation and completing a doctorate was a great act of faith. I’m grateful for God’s mercy and faithfulness. To be honest and frank, the road was not easy nor was it smooth, I faltered and stumbled so many times along the way; and so, I must give thanks to my mom for her unwavering support of me and my endeavors. She has been and continues to be my number one supporter, my first teacher, and her love and encouragement has sustained me when doubts crept in. When I entered the program at Rutgers, I had one major goal in mind: to complete the doctorate as “whole” as possible. I knew the journey would be a difficult one and I wanted to be sure that I remained the very best version of myself throughout. As I worked on the degree and even before entering the program I was blessed to have a family that kept me whole. My brothers Glenn and Joe never doubted my abilities and always believed in me. Since starting the program I’ve gained a sister-in-law, and a host of nieces and nephews whose beautiful faces and big hugs sustained me, not to mention the sweet sound of “Auntie” continues to warm my heart. I’d like to thank Karin Stanford and Ashley Jackson for their love, laughter, and support—and especially for allowing me to be a part of their family. My sister, Ashley was always a facetime away, and I appreciate all the ways in which she has been a cheerleader for me. It was Karin’s example as a professor, mentor, and friend that set me on this path so many years ago. I have valued her mentorship and I hope to one day make as large of an impact on my students’ lives as she has made on mine. More importantly, I’m looking forward to way more egghead trips. iii So many of my friends have become my family. Niaje Wells Hall has been more than a friend, and more than a supporter, not to mention the fact that she’s waited for years to hold up a sign at graduation for me. Thank you for your patience and for showing me perseverance. My CSUN tribe has kept me on point. I’m so fortunate to have started my academic career with such creative, intelligent, and bright individuals such as them. Alex especially made sure I got through. Stella, you’re next—let’s go! James Simmons, Rafiki Kai, and Thandi Chimurenga weren’t students but were guiding lights for me as an undergraduate and continue to be even at this point in life. One of the best things I did in undergrad was finding a group of people who understood me! The adventures I’ve had with Jaime Bianca are only a precursor to what is to come. And of course, Dustin was a dope addition to the crew. I’m so blessed to have you all. In New York, I met another group of lifelong friends. My days at Columbia earned me not only a degree but also the friendship of Lee Bynum, Theresa Hernandez, Nicole Richards, and Garrett Felber—all excellent scholars in their own right. They have helped shape my own intellectual development and I’m grateful. Dr. Manning Marable embodied the importance of institution building, he mentored me, and helped shape my understanding of Black Studies in ways I continue to uncover. Although he’s gone, my hope is that I’ve honored his legacy and that my scholarship is a testament to his investment in me. Being at Columbia also gave me access to a host of scholars who are excellent in their own right including Elizabeth Hinton, Megan Francis, and James “J.T.” Roane. I would be remiss to not acknowledge my scholar-friends who have held me down while in the trenches and lifted me up when I needed a break: Akinyele O. Umoja, Charles Jones, Jocelyn Imani, Jonathan Fenderson, Ronald Williams, Tanisha Ford, DeMarcus Jenkins, Antar Tichavakunda, Philana Payton, Brooklyne Gipson, Khalfani Herman, Marissiko Wheaton, Courtney Cox, Cazembe Stallings Jr., Samar (Sasha) Rodriguez, Stina Soderling, and Miriam Tola. These folks read ‘shitty drafts,’ gave thoughtful feedback, shaped my thinking on the project, offered me publishing opportunities, assisted me while I was on the job market, took me iv out for drinks and dinner, provided the best hugs, poignant advice, and helped me to navigate academia (and really life) I owe them a great debt. Rutgers is a power house full of scholars and I was fortunate to be with a group of researchers, thinkers, and instructors that truly are shaping the field of History, Women’s and Gender Studies and Black Studies. I wish I had space to describe the significant contributions each of them are making but instead I’ll leave you to find their work and bask in their brilliance. I am honored to have shared space with Jesse Bayker, Kendra Boyd, Adam Wolkoff, Dara Walker, Miya Carney, Max Hantel, Shannen Dee Williams, Leigh Ann Francis, Arika Easley-Houser, John Adams, Vanessa Holden, Felicia Thomas, Ashleigh Sanders, Stephanie Jones-Rogers, Mekala Audain, Walter Rucker, Ann Gordon, Rudy Bell, and Christopher Hayes. It has undoubtedly made me a better scholar. I’m especially grateful for their friendship as well. Carolina Alonso and I began our time in New Brunswick together after finishing a whirlwind year at the London School of Economics and Political Science. I have valued her as a roommate, friend, confidant, study partner, and someone who is always ready to party. Her friendship and guidance has been invaluable to me over the years. Andre Townsend listened to me vent and remained steadfast in his assertion that I could do this and I could finish. I’m grateful for his love, respect, support, and generosity as I finished this work. My dissertation committee was comprised of distinguished scholars: Deborah Gray White, Mia Bay, Temma Kaplan, and Jeanne Theoharis. I’m grateful for their time, contributions, and support throughout the writing. Dr. White pushed me to produce the best possible manuscript I could, and Dr. Theoharis provided critical support and v encouragement at every stage of this process. I have great appreciation for the staff at Rutgers University who were instrumental with all the administrative task over the years. Grants from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation and the Ford Foundation enabled me to conduct valuable research in a host of archives and libraries including Amistad Research Center, Schomburg Center, Tamiment Library & Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives, The Freedom Archive, and the National Archives for Black Women's History. I am grateful for the librarians and archivists that helped me gather material and pointed me in the direction of unforeseen gems. This study is dedicated to my ancestors. To all of those who have come before me-- striving for Black liberation. I am particularly indebted to all the Black women who fought for freedom, who maintained faith that a new world was indeed possible, and strove to make it a reality. “It is our duty to fight for our freedom. It is our duty to win. We must love each other and support each other. We have nothing to lose but our chains.” -Assata Shakur vi Table of Contents ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION ii Acknowledgements iii Table of Content vii List of Illustrations ix Introduction 1 Thinking of Armed Resistance as a Philosophy 7 Historiographical Significance 11 Chapter Outlines 32 A Note on Terminology 34 Chapter 1: A Historical Examination of Black Women Advocating Armed Resistance 38 Battling America’s Slave System 40 “Almost Advised Murder” 56 New Negro