THE POLLINATION OF VOLUME ONE VOLUME CULTIVATED PLANTS A COMPENDIUM FOR PRACTITIONERS POLLINATION SERVICES FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE EXTENSION OF KNOWLEDGE BASE POLLINATOR SAFETY IN AGRICULTURE THE POLLINATION OF CULTIVATED PLANTS A COMPENDIUM FOR PRACTITIONERS Volume 1 Edited by David Ward Roubik Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancon, Republic of Panama FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS ROME 2018 The text was prepared as part of the Global Environment Fund (GEF) supported project 'Conservation and management of pollinators for sustainable agriculture, through an ecosystem approach' implemented in seven countries – Brazil, Ghana, India, Kenya, Nepal, Pakistan and South Africa. The project was coordinated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) with implementation support from the United Nations Environment Programme (UN Environment). 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Roubik CONTENTS Compendium contents .............................................................................................................................xii Contributors .......................................................................................................................................... xiv Preface to the second edition .................................................................................................................. xix References ............................................................................................................................................ xxi A note on references .............................................................................................................................. xxi Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................ xxii Part I INTRODUCTION Chapter 1. LESSONS LEARNED OVER THE LAST 20 YEARS (David W. Roubik) .................................. 1 1.1 Sustainable pollination and pollinators ........................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Tropical and temperate zones .................................................................................................... 2 1.1.2 Pollinator backup and restoration .............................................................................................. 4 1.2 The extent of progress to date ....................................................................................................... 4 1.2.1 An ecological overview ........................................................................................................... 4 1.2.2 Major shifts in pollination landscapes ........................................................................................ 7 1.3 The pollination factor in croplands .................................................................................................. 8 1.3.1 Crop harvest constraints ........................................................................................................... 8 1.3.2 The nature of agricultural sustainability ................................................................................8 1.3.3 A taxonomic impediment for crops ............................................................................................. 9 1.3.4 Crop pollination ecology .......................................................................................................... 9 1.3.5 Prospects in pollination biology ...............................................................................................11 1.4 How to use this book ....................................................................................................................12 References ....................................................................................................................................13 Further reading ..............................................................................................................................17 Chapter 2. POLLINATION, POLLINATORS AND POLLINATION MODES: ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE .........................................................................................21 2.1 Pollination: a general overview (R.C. Sihag) ....................................................................................21 2.1.1 The flower ............................................................................................................................22 2.1.2 Pollination modes and pollinators .............................................................................................23 2.1.3 The ecological importance of pollinators and pollination modes ...................................................25 2.1.4 The economic importance of pollinators ....................................................................................26 2.1.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................29 2.2 Conserving pollinators for agriculture, forestry and nature (P.G. Kevan) ............................................29 2.2.1 Pesticides .............................................................................................................................30 2.2.2 Habitat destruction ................................................................................................................30 2.2.3 Pollinator diseases .................................................................................................................31 2.2.4 Pollinator competition ............................................................................................................32 2.2.5 Diversification of pollinators ....................................................................................................32 2.2.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................32 References ....................................................................................................................................33 THE POLLINATION OF CULTIVATED PLANTS: A COMPENDIUM FOR PRACTITIONERS - Volume 1 iii Chapter 3. SUSTAINABLE YIELDS, SUSTAINABLE GROWTH OR NEITHER? ........................................35 3.1 The potential for insect pollinators to alleviate global pollination deficits and enhance yields of fruit and seed crops (L.A. Garibaldi, S.A. Cunningham, M.A. Aizen, L. Packer and L.D. Harder) ............35 3.1.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................35 3.1.2 Pollen as a resource that limits crop yield ..................................................................................35 3.1.3 Pollinator dependence in fruit and seed crops ............................................................................36 3.1.4 Are pollination deficits common?..............................................................................................37 3.1.5 Can honey bee management alone reduce pollination deficits? .....................................................39 3.1.6 Why do wild insects contribute to crop yield? .............................................................................40 3.1.7 Sound practices that reduce pollination deficits ..........................................................................40 3.1.8 Natural history of bees and their potential for crop pollination .....................................................42 3.1.9 Bee introductions...................................................................................................................45 3.1.10 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................46