Doctor of Philosophy in Geology

Doctor of Philosophy in Geology

“ENVIRONMENTAL APPRAISAL OF MANGROVE WETLANDS BETWEEN MINDHOLA AND VAROLI ESTUARY (SOUTH GUJARAT) USING REMOTE SENSING” Thesis submitted to THE MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAO UNIVERSITY OF BARODA For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In Geology Submitted by BHATT SWETA Under the guidance of PROF. NIKHIL DESAI Department of Geology Faculty of Science The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Vadodara – 390 002, Gujarat, India C O N T E N T S CHAPTER PAGE NO. I INTRODUCTION 1 TO 39 1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Mangroves 5 1.3 Industrial Setup 6 1.3.1 Ports Development 8 1.4 Study Area 9 1.5 Physiography 10 1.6 Geology 12 1.7 Geomorphology 14 1.8 Climate 16 1.9 Drainage 19 1.10 Tides and Currents 20 1.11 Floral and Faunal Diversity 21 1.12 Coastal Wetland of the Study Area 24 1.12.1 Costal wetland of Mindhola River 27 1.12.2 Costal wetland of Purna River 27 1.12.3 Coastal wetlands of Rivers Ambika and Auranga 29 1.12.4 Coastal wetland of Par River 30 1.12.5 Coastal wetland of Kolak River 31 1.12.6 Coastal wetland of Damanganga River 31 1.12.7 Coastal wetland of Kalu/Kalai River 34 1.12.8 Coastal wetland of Varoli River 34 1.13 Aims and Objectives of Thesis 37 1.14 Methodology 38 II PREVIOUS WORK 40 TO 46 iv III MANGROVES 47 TO 92 3.1 Importance of Mangroves 48 3.1.1 Economic Benefits 49 3.1.2 Societal Importance and Ecological Services 51 3.2 The Mangrove Environment 53 3.3 Major Environmental Parameters Affecting 57 Mangroves 3.3.1 Climate 57 3.3.2 Temperature 58 3.3.3 Rainfall 58 3.3.4 Tidal Amplitude 60 3.3.5 Salinity 61 3.3.6 Geomorphology 62 3.4 Global Distribution of Mangroves 62 3.4.1 Global Mangrove Extent 67 3.5 Mangroves of India 70 3.5.1 Mangrove Extent in India 73 3.6 The Floral Diversity of Mangroves of India 74 3.7 Mangroves of Gujarat 79 3.7.1 Mangrove Extent in Gujarat 88 3.8 South Gujarat-Study Area 89 3.8.1 Mangrove Extent in South Gujarat 90 IV ESTUARINE GEOMORPHOLOGY 93 TO 125 4.1 Geomorphology-Definition 93 4.2 Fundamental Concepts 94 4.3 Coastal Systems 95 4.4 Coastal Geomorphology 96 4.5 Coastal Process 98 4.5.1 Sedimentary Process 100 4.5.2 Wave Process 101 v 4.5.3 Currents 102 4.5.4 Tides and Tidal Influence 103 4.5.5 Other Oceanographic Process 104 4.5.6 Wind Action 104 4.5.7 Frost Action 105 4.5.8 Fluvial Process 105 4.5.9 Weathering and Hill-Slope Processes 105 4.5.10 Biological Process 106 4.6 Estuarine Geomorphology 106 4.6.1 Estuaries and Their Geomorphology 108 4.6.2 Types of Estuaries 108 4.6.3 Morphodynamic Development of Estuaries 110 4.6.4 Estuarine Hydrodynamics 112 4.6.5 Process Influencing Estuarines 112 4.6.5.1 Tidal Processes in Estuaries 113 4.6.5.2 Wave-Influenced Estuaries 115 4.6.6 Estuarine Sedimentation 116 4.6.7 Drowned Valleys 117 4.7 Geomorphological Landforms of Estuarine Set-up 118 4.7.1 Stream Deposition (Fluvial) 118 4.7.2 Features resulting from marine deposition 121 4.7.3 From Fluvio-marine influence 123 V REMOTE SENSING 126 TO 169 5.1 Principles Of Remote Sensing-EMR 128 5.2 Characteristic of a Sensor 130 5.3 Resolution 131 5.4 Spectral Signature for the surface features of Earth 132 5.5 Importance of Remote Sensing in Coastal Region 135 5.6 Remote Sensing of Vegetation 136 5.6.1 Spectral Characteristics of Vegetation 143 5.6.2 Remote Sensing of Mangrove vegetation 153 vi VI DATA USED AND APPROACH 170 TO 209 6.1 Remote Sensing analysis 173 6.1.1 Data used 174 6.1.1.1 Survey of India toposheet (SOI) data 174 6.1.1.2 Satellite Data 175 6.1.2 Data Processing 177 6.1.2.1 Geometric Correction/Georeferencing 179 6.1.3 Image Analysis/Classification Steps 180 6.1.3.1 Classification Scheme 181 6.1.3.2 Image Enhancement 182 6.1.3.3 Classification Technique 183 6.2 Field Studies 194 6.3 Laboratory Analysis 199 VII RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 7.1 Diversity of the mangrove wetlands of south 210 TO 251 Gujarat 7.2 Mapping of Mangrove habitats 252 TO 265 7.3 Community Zonation of Mangroves 266 TO 292 7.4 Geomorphological setup and changes over 4 293 TO 315 decades 7.5 Change Detection 316 TO 338 7.6 Soil and Water Sample Analysis 339TO 377 VIII ENVIRONMENTAL APPRAISAL 378 TO 390 REFERENCES PUBLICATIONS vii LIST OF FIGURES FIGURES PAGE NO. 1.1 Industrial zones of Gujarat 8 1.2 Ports of Gujarat 9 1.3 Physiography Map of Gujarat 11 1.4 Geological Map of Gujarat 13 1.5 Isohyte Map of Gujarat 18 1.6 Drainage Map of Gujarat 20 1.7 Location map of the Study Area 26 1.8 Coastal wetland of Mindhola River 28 1.9 Coastal wetland of Purna River 28 1.10 Coastal wetland of Ambika-Auranga River 32 1.11 Coastal wetland of Par-Kolak River 33 1.12 Coastal wetland of Damanganga-Kalu River 33 1.13 Coastal wetland of Varoli River 35 3.1 Types of mangroves based on the environment 56 setting 3.2 Classification of mangrove environment 57 3.3 World Distribution of Mangrove diversity 63 3.4 Generalized global distribution of mangroves and the diversity of mangrove species per 15º of longitude 65 3.5 Extent of mangrove worldwide, 2005 69 3.6 Distribution of mangroves in India 71 4.1 An estuarine system 107 4.2 Schematic diagram of a typical estuary 108 4.3 Estuarine sub-types 110 4.4 Tide dominated estuary (A) Relative energy (B) 115 morphology 4.5 Wave dominate estuary (A)Relative energy (B) 116 morphology 4.6 Channel pattern and substratum geometry 119 Different fluvial styles are associated with different substratum geometries 4.7 Point Bar 120 4.8 Oxbow lake formation 121 4.9 Estuarine Set-up 124 5.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum 127 5.2 Diagrammatic representation of interactions of the 127 electromagnetic radiations with Earth’s surface 5.3 The EMR spectrum ranging from UV to microwave 129 region showing the atmospheric transmission windows, radiation absorbing gases which block transmission at specific wavelengths and the wavebands of a remote sensing systems used in coastal management related applications 5.4 Typical Spectral Reflectance curve for Vegetation, 134 viii Soil and Water 5.5 Internal structure of leaf 146 5.6 Incident and reflected wavelength from different 151 tissues 5.7 Dominant factors controlling transmission from a leaf 152 6.1 Map depicting the SOI toposheets covering the study 175 area 6.2 Portable soil and water analysis kit 202 7.1 Habitat map of Mindhola estuary 254 7.2 Habitat map of Purna estuary 255 7.3 Habitat map of Ambika estuary 256 7.4 Habitat map of Auranga estuary 257 7.5 Habitat map of Par estuary 258 7.6 Habitat map of Kolak estuary 259 7.7 Habitat map of Damanganga and Kalu estuary 261 7.8 Habitat map of Varoli estuary 262 7.9 Community map of Mindhola wetland (2001) 270 7.10 Community map of Purna wetland (2003) 272 7.11 Community map of Ambika wetland (2005) 276 7.12 Community map of Auranga wetland (2005) 278 7.13 Community map of Par wetland (2005) 279 7.14 Community map of Kolak wetland (2001) 282 7.15 Community map of Damanganga and Kalu wetland 283 (1999) 7.16 Community map of Varoli wetland (2001) 286 7.17 Geomorphological map of Purna estuary – 1965 300 7.18 Geomorphological map of Purna estuary – 1978 301 7.19 Geomorphological map of Purna estuary – 1988 301 7.20 Geomorphological map of Purna estuary – 2003 302 7.21 Geomorphological map of Ambika - Auranga 303 estuaries- 1965 7.22 Geomorphological map of Ambika - Auranga 304 estuaries- 2005 7.23 Geomorphological map of Par estuary- 1965 306 7.24 Geomorphological map of Kolak estuary- 1965 307 7.25 Geomorphological map of Par and Kolak estuary- 308 2005 7.26 Geomorphological map of Damanganga estuary- 1965 310 7.27 Geomorphological map of Damanganga estuary- 2001 311 7.28 Geomorphological map of Varoli estuary- 1965 312 7.29 Geomorphological map of Varoli estuary- 2001 313 7.30 Map of Purna – 1965 318 7.31 Map of Purna – 1978 318 7.32 Map of Purna – 1988 319 7.33 Map of Purna – 2005 319 7.34 Change detection map of Purna – 1978 to 2005 320 7.35 Map of Ambika – 1965 324 7.36 Map of Ambika – 1972 325 ix 7.37 Map of Ambika – 2005 326 7.38 Change detection map of Ambika– 1972 to 2005 327 7.39 Map of Auranga – 1965 331 7.40 Map of Auranga – 1972 332 7.41 Map of Auranga – 2005 333 7.42 Change detection map of Auranga – 1972 to 2005 334 x LIST OF PLATES AND FLOW CHART PLATES AND FLOW CHART PAGE NO. 1.1 Overall methodology 39 3.1 Mangroves reported from Gujarat 84 3.2 Mangroves reported from Gujarat 85 3.3 Mangroves reported from Gujarat 86 3.4 Mangroves reported from Gujarat 87 6.1 Overall approached employed for thesis 171 6.2 Detailed approach employed for thesis 172 6.3 Process involved in remote sensing of 194 mangroves 6.4 Methodology employed for field work 195 6.5 Methodology for soil sample size 208 analysis 7.1 Mangrove biodiversity of south Gujarat 227 7.2 Mangrove biodiversity of south Gujarat 228 7.3 Mangrove biodiversity of south Gujarat 229 7.4 Mangrove biodiversity of south Gujarat 230 7.5 Mangrove biodiversity of south Gujarat 231 7.6 Mangrove biodiversity of south Gujarat 232 7.7 Mangrove biodiversity of south Gujarat 233 7.8 Mangrove biodiversity of south Gujarat 234 7.9 Mangrove biodiversity of south Gujarat 235 7.10 Mangrove biodiversity of south Gujarat 236 7.11 Mangrove biodiversity of south Gujarat 237 7.12 Mangrove biodiversity of south Gujarat 238 7.13 Mangrove associates of south Gujarat 239 7.14 Mangrove associates of south Gujarat 240 7.15 Mangrove associates of south Gujarat 241 7.16 Mangrove associates of south Gujarat 242 7.17 Mangrove associates of south Gujarat 243 7.18 Mangrove associates of south Gujarat 244 7.19 Mangrove associates of south Gujarat 245 7.20 Mangrove associates of south Gujarat 246 7.21 Mangrove associates of south Gujarat 247 7.22 Mangrove associates of south Gujarat 248 7.23 Mangrove associates of south Gujarat 249 7.24 Mangrove associates of south Gujarat 250 7.25 Mangrove associates of south Gujarat 251 7.26 Composition of mangrove community 289 categories in south Gujarat 7.27 Composition of mangrove community 290 categories in south Gujarat 7.28 Composition of mangrove community 291 categories in south Gujarat 7.29 Geomorphological features 315 xi LIST OF TABLES TABLES PAGE NO.

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