The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgementTown of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Cape Published by the University ofof Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University The Khoekhoen of the Breede River Swellendam: an archaeological and historical landscape study Charles Ian Arthur Town Thesis presented for the degree of Master of Science Department of Archaeology University of Cape Town Cape Marchof 2008 University The Khoekhoen of the Breede River Swellendam an archaeological and historical landscape study Abstract This thesis investigates the archaeological visibility of indigenous herders in the Swellendam area of the Western Cape. The primary aim is to develop a methodology that combines the analysis of historical documents with archaeological survey. The literature review finds that the dominant model of 'hunter' 'herder' identity has favoured deep stratified midden sites at the expense of low density sites and the open landscape. The model is also linked to the persistence of outdated typological analysis and the lack of research into post-contact indigenous archaeology. Historical sources are reviewed in terms of their potential for developing archaeologicalTown questions as well as for designing a survey. A small section of the Breede River is identified that includes a number of locations with specific reference to Khoekhoen settlement in the 17th and 18th Centuries. Thirty seven open air sitesCape are reported from survey in this area Three large surface concentrations of indigenous pottery and a stone and aloe enclosure are chosen for a further phase of investigation consisting of surface collection and test excavation. The spatial plotting of two surface sites demonstrates that individual and datable hearths can be recognised in the plough zone. The discussion focuses on methodological issues and the potential of the archaeological data to contribute to questions concerning pastoralist visibility, mobility, social organisation and interactionUniversity between Khoekhoen and colonists in the 18th and 19th Centuries. Declaration This work has not been previously submitted in whole, or in part, for the award of any degree. It is my own work. Each significant contribution to, and quotation in, this dissertation from the work, or works, of other people has been attributed, and has been cited and referenced. Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the help of numerous friends. Philip Hine, Alex Mackay, Ara Wells, Will Archer and Brian Stewart, accompanied me on more than one survey outing. Thank you. Thanks also to Tim Hart and Dave Halket for suggesting the Breede River as a study area. Translations Townwere expertly done by Fionna Clayton and Philip Hine. Specialist knowledge was generously given by Alex Mackay on flaked stone technology; Karim Sadr on indigenous pottery and Jane Klose on European manufactured ceramics. In termsCape of thesis content, I would like to thank Andy Smith for expert supervision. Also, Peter Mitchell and Antonia Malan for reading and commenting on earlier versions.of In Swellendam there were many who were on hand to offer advice and friendship, especially Tizzie Mangiagalli and Peter Gratton and all the staff at the Drostdy Museum and Bontebok National Park. Thank you too to all the landowners and farm workers in the Swellendam region, especially Winjard Viljoen and James O'Kennedy who granted permission to collect artefacts. Special thanks goesUniversity to Mum, Alan, Dad, Tom and Jan for providing love and support. ii Contents 1. The problem of the 'invisible herder' .................................................................... 1 1.1. Introduction ............................................................................................ , ............ 1 1.2. Absence of evidence or evidence of absence? ................................................... .4 1.3. Chapter outline ................................................................................... ~ ................ 9 2. Literature Review .................................................................................................. 13 2.1. Labels in archaeology ....................................................................................... 13 2.2. Theory and method in pastoralist archaeology ................................................. 15 2.3. The quest for a herder 'type' ............................................................................. 17 2.4. Hunters or herders? ........................................................................................... 19 2.5. The revisionist argument .................................................................................. 23 2.6. The herder package ........................................................................................... 24 2.7. Twenty years on ................................................................................................ 28 2.8.1. Testing the dichotomy model: Variation in time and place ........................... 29 2.8.2. Functional considerations .............................................................................. 31 2.9.1. Future directions 1: Beyond the formal! informal dichotomy ....................... 32 2.9.3. Future directions 3: The importance oflow density and ploughzone archaeology ..............................................................................................................Town 41 2.10. New perspectives on the development ofpastoralism ................................... .44 2.11. Concluding remarks ........................................................................................ 46 3. The Khoekhoen of Swell endam 1660-1734 .......................................................... 49 3.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................Cape 49 3.2. Methodology ..................................................................................................... 50 3.3. The expeditions ................................................................................................. 51 3.3.1. Jeronimus Cruse 1668 and 1669 ....................................................................of 52 3.3.2. Laurens Visser 1677 ...................................................................................... 53 3.3.3. Bakkeleys Plaats ............................................................................................ 53 3.3.4. Issac Shrijver 1689 ......................................................................................... 54 3.3.5. The 1690s ....................................................................................................... 55 3.3.6. The Opening up of the Stock Trade ............................................................... 56 3.3.7. Jan Hartogh 1707 ........................................................................................... 56 3.3.8. The colony advances 1707-1734 ................................................................... 56 3.4. Potential for Universityreconstructing Khoekhoen settlement patterns ............................ 58 3.5. Implications for current survey design ............................................................. 64 3.6. Environmentallimi1p.tions for pastoralism on the south coastal plain .............. 64 4: The Khoekhoen of Swell endam 1734-1800.......................................................... 67 4.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 67 4.2. The Dispossession ofthe Hessequa .................................................................. 68 4.3.1. A Landscape Perspective: Toponymy and oral histories ............................... 74 4.3.2. Dating and sources of oral history ................................................................. 80 4.3.3. Captains, Colonists, and Company in the 18th Century ................................. 84 4.4. The role of archaeology .................................................................................... 90 4.4.1. Excavations of 18th Century Khoekhoen burial sites by the South African Museum 1980-1986 ................................................................................................. 91 4.4.3. Potential research avenues for post-contact archaeology in Swellendam ..... 94 4.5. Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 100 iii 5. Survey design and methodology .............••••••.•••.•••••••.•••••••••••••••.•••••• 103 5.1 Introduction .................................................................... .. 103 5.2. Geology and topography ...................................................... 103 5.3. Soils, vegetation and land-use ................................................ 106 5.4. Known historical and archaeological sites ................................. .. 109 5.5. The survey area defined .......................................................... .. 110 5.6. Survey methodology ........................................................... 112 5.7 Typology ....................................................................... .. 115 6. Survey results .••.••••••...•••••••......•••••••••••••.•..•.••..••.•.•...•.....•........... 116 6.1.