Gone to Texas: Eastern-European Jewish and Italian Immigrants in Urban Texas, 1900-1924 by Stacy D. Bondurant B.A. in History, May 2002, The University of Texas A Dissertation submitted to The Faculty of The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 20, 2012 Dissertation directed by Tyler Anbinder Professor of History The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University certifies that Stacy Dianne Lowe Bondurant has passed the Final Examination for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy as of March 23, 2012. This is the final and approved form of the dissertation. Gone to Texas: Eastern-European Jewish and Italian Immigrants in Urban Texas, 1900-1924 Stacy D. Bondurant Dissertation Research Committee: Tyler G. Anbinder, Professor of History, Dissertation Director Richard Stott, Professor of History, Committee Member Thomas A. Guglielmo, Associate Professor of American Studies, Committee Member ii © Copyright 2012 by Stacy D. Bondurant All rights reserved iii Dedicated to my son, Ford James Bondurant, and my daughter, Emerson Cleire Bondurant. iv Acknowledgements During the course of writing this dissertation I have made two cross-country moves and welcomed my two children into the world. As such, I could not have completed the project without the support of a number of individuals and institutions who have greatly helped me along the way. I am grateful to George Washington University for the financial assistance that made possible my enrollment as a graduate student and allowed me to focus much of my time and energy on my studies, research, and writing. I was fortunate to have the assistance of numerous archivists and librarians across the country who aided my research efforts. I would like to especially thank the librarians of Plattsburgh State University and the University of Texas at Dallas; Lisa May at the Archives of the Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston; Casey Greene and the staff of the Rosenberg Library in Galveston; the archivists of the Dallas Jewish Historical Society; and the very able staff of the Dolph Briscoe Center for American History at the University of Texas at Austin. I am grateful for the assistance of Tina Di Francia who helped me with the translation of Italian-language newspapers and to Gina Lecca of the Italian Club of Dallas provided me with contacts and ideas for further research on Italian immigrants. Larraine Miller, librarian at Shearith Isreal in Dallas, generously supplied me with synagogue records. The assistance of the faculty, staff, and graduate students of the History Department at George Washington University is immeasurable. I am thankful to Tyler Anbinder, whose patience apparently knows no bounds, for his guidance and extensive editing, and for going above and beyond what is required of a dissertation director. I am also grateful to Tom Guglielmo, Richard Stott, Leo Ribuffo, and Jenna Weissman Joselit v for their time and the feedback they provided. I have an enormous amount of respect and gratitude for Michael Weeks. I am thankful for the friends that I have made at George Washington University, who have helped me immensely through this process and encouraged me every step of the way. Sara Berndt, Kristen Gwinn, and Chris Hickman pushed me forward and offered advice when I needed it most. I am grateful for the friendships of Helena Kaler, Varad Mehta, and Bo Peery, whose infectious curiosity about the past encouraged me to be a better student. Outside GW, a number of friends have also provided me with encouragement and support, and I would like to especially thank Amber Bach-Gorman, Sara Hov, and Amy Kretser. My family has patiently watched as I worked for the past nine years, offering their love and support. I am grateful to all of them for the assistance and encouragement they provided me. I would like to thank my mother, Judy Lowe, for showing me that it is possible to pursue a higher degree even with the multitude of responsibilities that come with having a family, and to my father, Richard Lowe, who has taught me to take full advantage of the wonderful opportunities I have been offered. The sweet faces of my children, Ford and Emerson, provided comfort and relief when deadlines were closing in around me. I perhaps owe the greatest debt to my husband, Matt, who I could always count on for sound advice and encouragement. He has worked tirelessly to support our family over the past five years and words cannot adequately express the appreciation and admiration I have for him. vi Abstract of Dissertation Gone to Texas: Eastern-European Jewish and Italian Immigrants in Urban Texas, 1900-1924 This dissertation offers a close examination of the East European Jewish and Italian immigrant populations of three Texas cities—Dallas, Galveston, and Houston—at the turn of the century. Using statistical data derived from the 1900 and 1920 United States federal manuscript censuses, as well as information gathered from a variety of sources including newspapers, census directories, and religious organization records, it weaves together a narrative of the immigrant experience of two populations that receive little scholarly attention in studies of Texas history. Much of the history of southern and eastern European immigrants has been placed in the large immigrant centers of the north and northeastern United States. Despite the relatively small size of the East European Jewish and Italian immigrant populations in Texas’ cities in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, these two groups helped shape the economic and cultural landscape of three of the state’s largest urban areas. Through a comparison with East European Jewish and Italian immigrants in other major U.S. cities, it is apparent that the immigrants who settled in Texas cities were not particularly unique in terms of gender distribution, marital status, literacy, or ability to speak English. They were, however, far more likely to be involved in low status white- collar occupations, notably as small business owners. Immigrants in these positions, unlike those working as wage laborers in the employ of another, achieved some level of independence. vii Far removed from the immigrant centers of the North and Northeast, East European Jewish and Italian immigrants created a variety of institutions to facilitate their transition into their new homes in Texas, defining themselves by their ethnicity and retaining many homeland traditions. Rather than creating tension between the immigrant and native-born population, this practice of ethnic identification was in some cases encouraged by the native-born, even during a period of heightened anti-immigrant sentiment. The immigrants who settled in Texas’ urban areas were not, however, rejecting assimilation. In many ways, the ethnic identities they constructed incorporated their new status as Americans and Texans. viii Table of Contents Dedication iv Acknowledgements v Abstract vi List of Figures viii List of Tables ix Introduction 1 Chapter One A Pioneer Effort: Texas’ Immigrant Past 17 Chapter Two Deep in the Heart of Texas: The Immigrants’ Arrival in Dallas, Galveston, and Houston 52 Chapter Three “The Possibilities Within Their Reach”: Immigrants and Work in Dallas, Galveston, and Houston 90 Chapter Four Constructing Community: Social Organization of East European Jewish and Italian Immigrants 140 Chapter Five A Conditional Welcome: Assimilation, Americanization, and the Retention of Ethnic Identity 189 Conclusion 244 Bibliography 255 List of Figures Figure 1.1 The German Belt of Texas 20 Figure 4.1 Catholic Churches Attended by Italians in Dallas 150 Figure 4.2 Catholic Churches Attended by Italians in Galveston 151 Figure 4.3 Catholic Churches Attended by Italians in Houston 152 Figure 4.4 Houston Synagogues 165 Figure 4.5 Galveston Synagogues 166 Figure 4.6 Dallas Synagogues 167 Figure 5.1 Areas of Highest Residential Concentration of Italians in Dallas, 1900 and 1920 197 Figure 5.2 Areas of Highest Residential Concentration of Italians in Houston, 1900 and 1920 199 Figure 5.3 Areas of Highest Residential Concentration of Italians in Galveston, 1900 and 1920 201 Figure 5.4 Areas of Highest Residential Concentration of East European Jewish Immigrants in Dallas, 1900 and 1920 206 Figure 5.5 Areas of Highest Residential Concentration of East European Jewish Immigrants in Houston, 1900 and 1920 208 Figure 5.6 Areas of Highest Residential Concentration of East European Jewish Immigrants in Galveston, 1900 and 1920 210 x List of Tables Table 1.1 Total Texas and Foreign Born Population, 1860-1920 18 Table 1.2 Population Size of Texas’ Largest Immigrant Groups, 1860-1920 20 Table 1.3 Rural and Urban Population of Texas, 1900-1920 41 Table 1.4 Population of Seven Largest Foreign-Born Immigrant Groups in Galveston, 1900, 1920 44 Table 1.5 Population of Seven Largest Foreign-Born Immigrant Groups in Houston, 1900, 1920 46 Table 1.6 Population of Seven Largest Foreign-Born Immigrant Groups in Dallas, 1900, 1920 50 Table 2.1 Italian Immigrant Families with American-Born Children, 1920 62 Table 2.2 Eastern European Jewish Immigrant Families with American-Born Children, 1920 63 Table 2.3 Percentage of Immigrant Households in which Members Engaged in Chain Migration, 1920 65 Table 2.4 Gender Distribution of Italian Immigrants within Sample Group, 1920 70 Table 2.5 Marital Status of Male Adult Italian Immigrants by City, 1920 72 Table 2.6 Marital Status of Female