ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICT AND SETTLEMENT DYNAMICS IN PLATEAU STATE, NIGERIA, 1994-2012 BY ONYEKACHI ERNEST NNABUIHE B.A. (Imo), M.A. (Ibadan) A Thesis in PEACE and CONFLICT STUDIES Submitted to the Institute for Peace and Strategic Studies, in partial fulfilment for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN SEPTEMBER 2016 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY i ABSTRACT Persistent communal conflicts in Plateau State underscore the differences between ethno-religious identities and aggravated segregation in human settlements. Existing studies on ethno-religious conflict have focused on colonial segregated settlement policy otherwise known as the Sabon Gari. These studies have neglected settlement dynamics as both cause and effect of ethno-religious conflicts. This study, therefore, interrogated the complex interaction between ethno-religious conflict and settlement dynamics in Plateau State. This is with a view to showing how conflicts structure and restructure settlements and their implications for inter-group relations, group mobilisation and infrastructural development. The study adopted Lawler‘s Relational theory and case study research design. Respondents were purposively selected from four Local Government Areas comprising Jos North, Jos South, Barkin- Ladi and Riyom. Primary data were collected through 46 in-depth interviews from twelve neighbourhood leaders, eleven ethno-religious group leaders, three members of civil society organisations, four estate managers, two security officials, two academics and twelve youth leaders. A total of six Focus Group Discussions were held: one each with Afizere, Anaguta and Hausa ethnic groups in Jos North, Berom in Jos South, Igbo in Barkin-Ladi and Fulani in Riyom. Non-participant observation method was also employed. Historical documents from National Archives, Kaduna were sourced and utilised. Secondary data consisted of Government white papers, gazettes, reports, petitions, books and journal articles. Data were content and thematically analysed. In the historical evolution of Plateau State, the climate as well as inter-group relations played significant roles in the settlement dynamics. In pre-colonial Plateau State people lived on top of mountains for fear of being attacked by foreign elements. Colonial Plateau State experienced relative peace. Nevertheless, the colonialists divided the area into Native Town and Township which facilitated forms of identity conflicts. Before 1994, different groups lived together without considering ethno-religious identities. However, persistent violence between ethno-religious groups since 2001 led to the emergence of exclusive neighbourhoods for Christians (AngwanRukuba, Gyel, Kashan-Gwol, and Shonong) and Muslims (Gangare, Kasali, AngwanSarki and Gashish). This trend deepened in rural areas from 2012 as conflicts intensified. The emerging settlement dynamic has created atmosphere of fear, giving rise to ethno-religious insecurity, impacted trust and created a culture of violence. It has also facilitated group mobilisation for violence by aiding the drive to safeguard the emerging settlements. Groups build worship centres and community halls within the new settlements and these structures have reinforced group mobilisation and bind their capability and legitimacy for conflicts. This has affected infrastructural development; certain neighbourhoods have been totally neglected while the exclusion narrative in the area has further intensified violence. Settlement dynamics are central to ethno-religious conflict because of their identity and security implications. Group segregation in settlements is a security threat and conflict factor. To mitigate conflicts and promote inter-group peaceful relations, it is imperative to develop in neighbourhoods, structures of inter-group relations like sports complexes and town halls. Faith based organisations should be monitored to limit radicalised views. Government and philanthropists need to collaborate to rebuild destroyedUNIVERSITY homes and facilitate people‘s OF return IBADAN after conflicts. LIBRARY Keywords: Settlement dynamics, Ethno-religious insecurity, Plateau State Nigeria Word count: 497 ii CERTIFICATION I certify that this research work was carried out by Onyekachi Ernest NNABUIHE in Peace and Conflict Studies Programme, Institute for Peace and Strategic Studies, University of Ibadan. .......................................................................... Supervisor Rasheed O. Olaniyi, Ph.D. Department of History University of Ibadan UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY iii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my late father Pa Michael Uzoma Nnabuihe who championed peace wherever he sojourned during his lifetime. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This work, like all doctoral theses is a product of collaborative efforts. Several personalities and organisations have at different times directly or indirectly collaborated in making this work a reality. Their immense contributions and sacrifices can neither be adequately described by words nor quantified. Yet, it is important to recognise and note their contributions. I thank Dr. Rasheed O. Olaniyi, my supervisor for encouraging me all through the programme. He was always on me to do the right thing. Dr. Olaniyi kept encouraging me to write for international audiences to test the research idea very early in the programme. I am glad I accepted the challenge he gave. I thank him for his critical comments and contributions towards enhancing the quality of this work. Dr. Ifeanyi Onwuzuruigbo, Department of Sociology, University of Ibadan has been of great help right from the conception of the idea of this work. We sat together to reflect on the literature of ethno-religious conflicts and came to the conclusion that the interaction between the phenomenon of ethno-religious conflict and settlement dynamics will be a worthwhile venture. Dr. Onwuzuruigbo helped me search for literature and showed me how to engage the literature. He supported me all through the period of this work. I thank him for his valuable comments. I must also thank Dr. Dickson D. Ajayi, Department of Geography, University of Ibadan for his valuable comments that strengthened this work. My teachers- Professor Isaac Olawale Albert, late Professor O.B. Olaoba, Drs. Nathaniel D. Danjibo, Stephen Faleti, Sola Ishola, A.B. Aluko and Willie Eselebor- at the Institute for Peace and Strategic studies were invaluable. Specifically, Dr. Nathaniel Danjibo was very supportive. He took time to read through the first draft of this work. Dr. Danjibo‘s in-depth knowledge on the politics and history of Northern Nigeria and how it reflected in shaping this work is immeasurable. I thank them for the encouragement and support. My gratitude goes to Professors Fabian Ehikhamenor and Isaac Ukpokolo who kept encouraging me that there is light at the end of the tunnel. Their encouragement and support energized me to carry on despite the challenges. I also like to thank Drs. Chinyere Ukpokolo and Esther Ehikhamenor for their support and encouragement. I am alsoUNIVERSITY indebted to Professors Glenn OFLoury, AshutoshIBADAN Varshney andLIBRARY Daniel Smith of Brown University USA for making valuable comments on this work and for their gifts of books. Professors Loury and Varshney showed me deep things why the study of ethno-religious conflict and settlement dynamics is timely. I thank the Ethnicity, Conflict and Inequality Institute (ECI) of v Brown International Advanced Research Institutes (BIARI) for shaping some of my thoughts for this work. I am grateful to Drs. Patricia Agupusi and Atul Pokharel of Watson Institute, Brown University for their insightful comments. I also want to thank Dr. Insa Nolte of University of Birmingham, Dr. Sulaiman Ajala and Professor Tunde Lawuyi of the University of Ibadan who gave a foundational teaching on writing a PhD thesis at the 2014 Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) Ph.D writing workshop held in Ibadan. I thank the organisers. I am eternally grateful to my parents- late Mr Michael Nnabuihe and Mrs Regina Nnabuihe for their love and faith in me. I appreciate my siblings- Innocent, Longinus, Kenneth, Adaku, Clifford, Oluchi, Kingsley, Victor and Chimezie- who have sacrificed a lot to give me the space and atmosphere to carry out this work. They gave their all and remained resolute, believing that I will excel. I also appreciate my in-laws Mr and Mrs Cyprian and Christiana Chibueze for their encouragement. I thank Chukwudi, Ijeoma, Ifeanyi, Emeka, Amarachi, Chimezie and Chinaza. It is difficult to ignore the support and encouragement of my relations and friends who in one way or the other contributed to this programme. They are Mrs Kelechi Uzoma Nnabuihe, Mrs Udo Onwuzuruigbo, Casimir Ikwu, Lazarus Nwaozor, Romanus Uzoma, Walter Iwu, Lucky Iwu, Comrade Adebayo Olatunji, Egwuatu Onyejelem, Dike Agbaghigba, William Akuta, Tony Okoroike, Kelvin Ashindorbe, Lanre Yusuf, Martin Nwaneri, Tega Ogboru, Hilary Iroegbulam, Joy Oyasotie, Polycarp Okoro and Peter Eke. Their support both morally and financially carried this work to completion. I thank them all. My sincere gratitude also goes to all gatekeepers, assistants and all who either facilitated or yielded to my field work requests. Particularly, I thank Lamido Ali Sandah for his support. My special thanks go to my wife Chidimma and son Ebubechukwu for their love, care and faith in me. They are for me the Epiphany of God‘s faithful. My wife remained very supportive in all respects. I thank Rev. Frs.