Xenophobic exclusion and masculinities among Zimbabwean male migrants: the case of Cape Town and Stellenbosch by Pedzisayi Leslie Mangezvo Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Social Anthropology in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Stellenbosch University Supervisor: Prof. Steven L. Robins March 2015 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Declaration By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. March 2015 Signature: Copyright © 2015 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved i Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Abstract The anthropological investigation of masculinities remains an understudied dimension of transnational migration and xenophobia studies in post-apartheid South Africa. This thesis sets out to examine the interface between xenophobia, migrant experiences and masculinities among Zimbabwean male migrants in Cape Town and Stellenbosch. Drawing from the conceptual ideas of Critical Studies of Men (CSM) and on the basis of conversations with Zimbabwean male migrants in Cape Town and Stellenbosch, the thesis explores the relationship between the perceived threat of xenophobia and the production of enclaved, subaltern, troubled and aspirational masculinities. The thesis assesses how “xenophobia talk” among the Zimbabwean male migrants appears to produce socio-spatial separations with South African nationals. We see in the football-playing migrants in Stellenbosch an attempt to circumvent perceived exclusion by establishing enclaved male domains that assert their ‘authority’ as Zimbabwean men. The thesis therefore demonstrates the productivity of talk in the construction of xenophobia, male identities and identifications. There is literature suggesting that sections of South African nationals refer to African migrants derogatively as amakwerekwere. Conversely, evidence from Cape Town and Stellenbosch show how Zimbabwean male migrants openly talk about South Africans in equally adverse terms. This raises questions about the role migrants play in the production of reverse xenophobia and their contribution towards the perpetuation of processes of othering that transnational migration often engenders. The thesis draws the conclusion that the threat of xenophobia does not deter Zimbabwean male subjects from migrating to South Africa. However, it compels them to map South African urban spaces in very specific ways. ii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Opsomming Die antropologiese ondersoek na vorms van manlikheid is ʼn dimensie van studies oor transnasionale migrasie en xenofobie in postapartheid Suid-Afrika waaroor daar steeds min navorsing gedoen word. Hierdie tesis ondersoek die skeidingsvlak tussen xenofobie, migrante se ervarings en vorms van manlikheid onder manlike Zimbabwiese migrante in Kaapstad en Stellenbosch. Gebaseer op die konsepsuele idees van Critical Studies of Men (CSM) en gesprekke met manlike Zimbabwiese migrante in Kaapstad en Stellenbosch, ondersoek die tesis die verhouding tussen die waargeneemde bedreiging van xenofobie en die totstandkoming van ingeslote, ondergeskikte, ongeruste en ambisieuse manlikhede. Die tesis evalueer hoe “xenofobie-taal” onder manlike Zimbabwiese migrante sosio-ruimtelike afstande tussen hulle en Suid-Afrikaanse burgers skep. Ons sien onder die sokkerspelende migrante in Stellenbosch dat daar ʼn poging is om waargeneemde uitsluiting te omseil deur die daarstelling van ingeslote manlike domeine wat hulle ‘outoriteit’ as Zimbabwiese mans handhaaf. Die tesis demonstreer dus die manier waarop taal bydra tot die konstruksie van xenofobie, manlike identiteite en identifikasies. Daar bestaan literatuur wat suggereer dat sekere segmente van Suid-Afrikaanse burgers op ʼn neerhalende wyse na migrante uit Afrika verwys as amakwerekwere. Daarteenoor is daar bewyse uit Kaapstad en Stellenbosch wat toon dat manlike Zimbabwiese migrante openlik na Suid-Afrikaners in ooreenstemmende verkleinerende terme verwys. Dit laat vrae ontstaan oor die rol wat migrante speel in die daarstelling van omgekeerde xenofobie en hulle bydrae tot die voortbestaan van prosesse van vervreemding wat dikwels spruit uit transnasionale migrasie. Hierdie tesis kom tot die slotsom dat manlike Zimbabwiese persone nie deur die bedreiging van xenofobie afgeskrik word om na Suid-Afrika te migreer nie. Dit dwing hulle egter om Suid-Afrikaanse stedelike gebiede op baie spesifieke maniere te karteer sodat hulle in hierdie gebiede kan bly sonder om daardeur gebind te word. iii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements I acknowledge Prof. Steven L. Robins in the Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology, who deserves special mention for the mentorship, encouragement and supervision he provided throughout my doctoral studies. His conceptual ideas, feedback on the many written drafts, and the suggestions on ethnographic writing were critical in the evolution and completion of the thesis. The supervisory style he provided will stay with me forever. It was intellectually empowering, and challenged me to critically engage with theory and research in the formulation of independent conclusions. I would also particularly like to thank Prof. Robins for sourcing additional funding, which I used for my fieldwork in both Cape Town and Stellenbosch. I gratefully acknowledge the funding that was awarded to me by the Graduate School of Arts and Social Sciences to pursue my doctoral studies full-time at Stellenbosch University. I would like to specifically mention Dr. Cindy-Lee Steenekamp of the Graduate School for keeping her door open at all times, facilitating the timeous payment of bursaries, not to mention the encouragement, hugs and warnings! I am also indebted to South Africa- Netherlands Research Programme on Alternatives in Development (SANPAD) for the financial support towards my fieldwork in Cape Town and Stellenbosch. Throughout the study period, the Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology at Stellenbosch University funded my participation at Anthropology Southern Africa (ASNA) annual conferences at which I presented some of the findings offered in the thesis. To all the Zimbabwean male migrants who participated in the study in Cape Town and Stellenbosch, I am eternally thankful for welcoming me into your lives, homes, workplaces, places of recreation and for sharing your unique stories with me. Spending time with you was worth all the education in this world and I hope each and every one of you continues to hold on to the hope you expressed through your fascinating narratives. Thank you to People Against Suffering, Oppression and Poverty (PASSOP) for opening their doors and archives to me. iv Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za I would like to thank Dr. Gibson Ncube and Dr. Gugulethu Siziba for the time they invested in reviewing my drafts and assisting with some of the Ndebele translations. Elias Alemu Bedasso was kind enough to send me some masculinities literature from his base in Bergen, Norway. Dr. Medadi Ssentanda trained me in the use of automatic referencing. Elizabeth Hector in the Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology was a great help in formatting and printing copies of the thesis for examination. Godfrey Hove is singled out for his companionship. Mostly, I wish to thank my wife, Nomsa, and my two kids, Tadiwanashe and Tinevimbo, for putting up with the mood swings and challenged masculinities during the course of the doctoral studies. Together, we went through this journey. There were tears. Yes, there was pain, but through it all, we never stopped believing or dreaming. I would like to dedicate this thesis to the three of you. v Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za List of abbreviations ACMS African Centre for Migration Studies AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ANC African National Congress BCSA Broadcasting Commission of South Africa BSAC British South Africa Company CSM Critical Studies of Men CoRMSA Consortium for Refugees and Migrants in South Africa DA Democratic Alliance DHA Department of Home Affairs DRC Democratic Republic of Congo EBA Employment Bureau of Africa EFF Economic Freedom Fighters ESAP Economic Structural Adjustment Program FMSP Forced Migration Studies Program FNB First National Bank FRELIMO Front for Liberation of Mozambique HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HSRC Human Sciences Research Council HRW Human Rights Watch IDASA Institute for a Democratic Alternative for South Africa IFP Inkatha Freedom Party IJR Institute for Justice and Reconciliation IMF International Monetary Fund ILO International Labour Office IOM International Organisation for Migration KZN KwaZulu-Natal MDC Movement for Democratic Change OSSREA Organisation for Social Science Research in Eastern & Southern Africa vi Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za PASSOP People Against Suffering, Oppression and Poverty RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme RENAMO Mozambique Resistant Movement RNLB Rhodesian Native Labour Bureau SABC South African Broadcasting Corporation SADC Southern African Development Community SAHRC South African Human Rights Commission SAMP Southern Africa Migration