QUANTITATIVE AQUATIC TOXICITY MEASURES OF PHARMACEUTICALS AND PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS (PPCPs) AND THEIR SUBLETHAL AND LETHAL EFFECTS IN AQUATIC ORGANISMS by Harveer Singh Srain Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Studies at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia August 2020 © Copyright by Harveer Singh Srain, 2020 Dedicated to my beloved wife, mother and brother for their unwavering support and sacrifices ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………......vi LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………..viii ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………....ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED…………………………………………………......x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………......xiv CHAPTER 1: Introduction………………………………………………………..............1 1.1 Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs)…………………………….1 1.2 Overview of the problem………………………………………………………….1 1.3 Background to the study…………………………………………………………..6 1.3.1 A review of the global problem……………………......................................6 1.3.2 PPCPs in aquatic environment of Canada……………………………..........7 1.4 Research objectives..................................................................................................8 1.5 Methodological approach.........................................................................................9 1.6 Thesis organization..................................................................................................9 CHAPTER 2: A systematic literature review of the aquatic toxicity of PPCPs and their sublethal and lethal effects in aquatic organisms.............11 2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................11 2.1.1 Risk of PPCPs in the aquatic environment...................................................11 2.1.2 Literature review on aquatic toxicity of PPCPs............................................14 2.2 Methods..................................................................................................................15 2.2.1 Prioritization approach..................................................................................15 2.2.2 Selection of priority PPCPs...........................................................................16 iii 2.2.3 Review structure for priority PPCPs.............................................................19 2.2.4 Identification of aquatic organisms affected by PPCPs................................20 2.2.5 Identification of sublethal and lethal effects of PPCPs................................20 2.2.6 Identification of threshold and environmentally relevant concentrations of PPCPs..............................................................................22 2.2.7 Identification water quality guidelines and environmental risk assessments...........................................................................................22 2.2.8 Generation of species sensitivity distributions (SSDs).................................22 2.3 Results....................................................................................................................23 2.3.1 Reporting of priority PPCPs..........................................................................23 2.3.2 Aquatic organisms affected by PPCPs..........................................................24 2.3.3 Summary assessment of aquatic organisms reported to be affected by priority PPCPs............................................................................34 2.3.4 Sublethal effects of PPCPs on aquatic organisms.........................................35 2.3.5 Summary assessment of sublethal effects of PPCPs on aquatic organisms......................................................................................................53 2.3.6 Lethal effects of PPCPs on aquatic organisms.............................................56 2.3.7 Summary assessment of lethal effects of PPCPs on aquatic organisms.......72 2.3.8 Calculation of standard deviation (SD)........................................................75 2.3.9 Threshold concentrations of PPCPs for key aquatic species........................77 2.3.10 Environmental relevant concentrations of PPCPs.....................................82 2.3.11 Water quality guidelines and environmental risk assessments..................83 2.3.12 Species sensitivity distributions (SSDs)....................................................85 2.4 Discussion..............................................................................................................89 2.5 Recommendations for future research...................................................................94 iv 2.6 Conclusion.............................................................................................................95 CHAPTER 3: Conclusions................................................................................................98 3.1 Summary of research.............................................................................................98 3.1.1 Key findings..................................................................................................99 3.1.2 Research gaps.............................................................................................102 3.2 Management implications...................................................................................103 3.3 Management solutions........................................................................................105 3.3.1 Rational use of PPCPs................................................................................105 3.3.2 Advancement in wastewater treatment technologies..................................105 3.3.3 Appropriate disposal of PPCPs...................................................................106 3.3.4 Extended producer responsibility...............................................................106 3.4 Concluding remarks............................................................................................107 REFERENCES................................................................................................................109 APPENDIX A: Table A.1................................................................................................148 APPENDIX B: References for Tables 2.4 and 2.5..........................................................151 v LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1. PPCPs in aquatic ecosystems identified in three key studies for relative risk, adverse effects, and toxicity to aquatic organisms.......................18 Table 2.2. Definitions of sublethal and lethal concentrations, predicted environmental concentrations, and risk quotients for specific aquatic organisms, compiled and comparatively assessed..........................................21 Table 2.3. Total number of articles identified for each priority PPCPs through initial and advanced searches...........................................................................24 Table 2.4. Number of studies on aquatic organisms affected by 12 priority PPCPs organized by taxonomic classification of organisms and PPCPs.........25 Table 2.5. Rank order of aquatic organisms from highest to lowest number of studies on affects after exposure to priority PPCPs.........................................30 Table 2.6. Sublethal effects of carbamazepine..................................................................36 Table 2.7. Sublethal effects of erythromycin.....................................................................39 Table 2.8. Sublethal effects of fluoxetine..........................................................................41 Table 2.9. Sublethal effects of metoprolol.........................................................................42 Table 2.10. Sublethal effects of naproxen.........................................................................43 Table 2.11. Sublethal effects of ofloxacin.........................................................................44 Table 2.12. Sublethal effects of sertraline.........................................................................44 Table 2.13. Sublethal effects of sulfamethoxazole............................................................45 Table 2.14. Sublethal effects of bisphenol A.....................................................................46 Table 2.15. Sublethal effects of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate.........................................48 Table 2.16. Sublethal effects of nonylphenol....................................................................49 Table 2.17. Sublethal effects of triclosan...........................................................................51 Table 2.18. Lethal effects of priority pharmaceuticals, organized by compound, organism, and exposure time.......................................................57 vi Table 2.19. Lethal effects of priority personal care products, organized by compound, organism, and exposure time.......................................................65 Table 2.20. Calculation of mean and standard deviations (SD) for EC50 values expressed in mg/L................................................................................76 Table 2.21. Threshold concentrations of priority PPCPs for key aquatic species for sublethal effects...........................................................................78 Table 2.22. Threshold concentrations of priority PPCPs for key aquatic species for lethal effects.................................................................................80