Oleg Pakhomov Self-Referentiality of Cognition and (De)Formation of Ethnic Boundaries A Comparative Study on Korean Diaspora in Russia, China, the United States and Japan Self-Referentiality of Cognition and (De)Formation of Ethnic Boundaries Oleg Pakhomov Self-Referentiality of Cognition and (De)Formation of Ethnic Boundaries A Comparative Study on Korean Diaspora in Russia, China, the United States and Japan 123 Oleg Pakhomov Institute of International Relations Kazan Federal University Kazan, Tatarstan Republic Russia ISBN 978-981-10-5504-1 ISBN 978-981-10-5505-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5505-8 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017945683 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Acknowledgements I would like to first acknowledge the primary source of financial support during my study at Kyoto University. My research was supported by a scholarship from Ministry of Education of Japan (Monbushō) from April 2004 to 2010 and the Academy of Korean Studies in March 2015. I want to express my heartfelt thanks to my advisor, Professor Brian Masaru Hayashi, who played key role in making this work happen. I was extremely fortunate to be a member of “Tower of Babylon” group and do my research under his guidance. The work presented in this disser- tation would not be possible without his support and advice. I am also grateful to Prof. Reiko Maekawa, Assoc. Prof. Kizo Ogura, and Prof. Fumiaki Hattori from Kyoto University for finding time to review my manuscript. I would like to give special thanks to the staff of Koryo-Shinmun a Russian Korean newspaper based in Ussuriysk and especially to editor Ms. Helena Steblyanko; all members of Japanese Korean Ryuhaktong club at Kyoto University, Doshisha University, and Kansai University of Foreign Languages; Assoc. Prof. Edward Park from Loyola Marymount University; the staff of East Asian Library of University of Southern California and especially Korean Heritage Library Curator Joy Kim. I am also grateful to Prof. Liza Cerroni Long from Easter Michigan University for allowing me to present parts of my work at the Sixteenth World Congress in July 2009 in Kunming (China) and publish them as an article in Ethnoculture. Last but not least, I cannot express enough how much I owe to my family for their support and understanding throughout the project. Without family by side I would not been able to complete this work, especially my wife Fumiko who helped me with the Japanese texts and illustrations. With deep appreciation and love, I dedicate this work to them: Victor, Anna, Stanislav, Tatyana, Olga, and Fumiko. v Contents 1 Introduction.............................................. 1 1.1 Review of Literature.................................... 4 1.2 Theoretical Aspects of Observations on Diaspora.............. 14 1.3 Methodology ......................................... 18 2 Formation of Korean “Modernities” .......................... 25 3 Korean Diaspora and (Post) Socialist Modernization in Russia and China ....................................... 33 3.1 “National (Dis) Unity” of Korean Diaspora in Russia .......... 35 3.1.1 Expansion of State Power and Politicization Soviet Korean Diaspora ................................. 36 3.1.2 Narrowing of State Power and Soviet/Russian Korean Compensation of Political Vacuum ................... 42 3.1.3 Russian Koreans and Post-socialist Dynamic of Power .... 49 3.2 “Social (Dis) Harmony” of Korean Diaspora in China .......... 58 3.2.1 Formation of Chinese Korean Political Subjectivity ...... 58 3.2.2 Socialism and Antagonistic (Dis) Solidarity Chinese Korean Diaspora ................................. 60 3.2.3 Capitalism and “Social (Dis) Harmony” of Chinese Korean Diaspora ................................. 69 4 Korean Diaspora and Capitalist Modernization in the United States and Japan .......................................... 81 4.1 “Ethnic (Dis) Balance” of Korean Diaspora in the United States .................................... 82 4.1.1 Korean American Concentration of Economic Resources............................ 87 4.1.2 Korean American Diversification of Economic Resources............................ 93 4.1.3 Korean American Compensation of Social Inequalities .... 101 vii viii Contents 4.1.4 Korean American Commercialized Imagination: Between Nature and Culture ............................... 104 4.1.5 Korean American Bittersweet Life ................... 111 4.2 “Moral (Dis) Content” of Korean Diaspora in Japan ........... 117 4.2.1 Moralization of Japanese Korean Diaspora ............. 118 4.2.2 The Japanese Korean Protest Movement ............... 123 4.2.3 The Counter Protest Against the Japanese Korean Diaspora ....................................... 135 4.2.4 Japanese Korean Cultivation of Persons for Protest ...... 141 5 Socialist and Capitalist Modernization of Nation of Origin and Formation of Diaspora Politics ........................... 157 5.1 North Korea and Political (Dis) Loyalty of Korean Diaspora ..... 158 5.2 South Korea and Social (in) Equality of Korean Diaspora ....... 171 6 Conclusion ............................................... 181 Bibliography ................................................ 187 Abbreviations ADHD Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder CD Certificate of Deposit CDFI California Department of Financial Institutions CIS Commonwealth of Independent States CK KPSS Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union CRE Commercial Real Estate DIF Deposit Insurance Fund DPRK The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea FDIC The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation ICHC I Can Has Cheezburger? IT Information Technology KIWA Koreatown Immigrant Workers Alliance NKVD The People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs MIWON Multi-Ethnic Immigrant Workers Alliance RGASPI Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History SBA Small Business Administration SCAP Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers VKP (b) All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) ix Abstract The purpose of this research is to develop a new approach towards formation of the ethnic boundary as complex interrelation between cognitive structures and ethnic/national boundaries formation process. The Korean Diaspora in China, Russia, the USA, and Japan illustrate how this process correlates with nationalism of host societies and how it can be different and similar at the same time. Korean diaspora developed a complex of adaptive reactions that cultivate particular social expectations and internalize produced disappointments into national or ethnic dis- course that function as an important source of motivation to pursue further nation or ethnic boundaries building process as a part of modernization. (Post)socialist nations such as Russia, China, and North Korea exploit ethnic/national culture as a form of distribution of political power between state and society. The capitalist nations such as the USA, Japan, and South Korea rely on reproduction of social inequality to regulate reproduction of ethnic/nationals boundaries. In other words, the Russian Korean and Chinese Korean ethnic boundaries oscillate between anti-state and pro-state positions and the Russian and Chinese state between anti-ethnic and pro-ethnic policies. Identities of the Korean American diaspora oscillate between abundance and scarcity of money for Korean American diaspora and other ethnic group. Dynamics of Japanese Korean diaspora refers to complex of moral reactions against economic exclusion oscillating between positive moral reaction (compassion) and negative moral reaction (criticism). Keywords Diaspora Á Social complexity Á Cognition Á Ethnicity Á Nationalism Á Capitalism Á Socialism Á Modernization xi Chapter 1 Introduction Abstract Ethnic boundaries of Korean diaspora after more than hundred years still remain important political and economic factor both for ethnic Koreans all over the world, their host nations and nation of origins. Boundaries persist in spite of failed nation-building process as well as process of ethnicity formation. Contradictions of nation state, high level of labor division, presence of ethnic minorities and