Iconicity as a pervasive force in language: Evidence from Ghanaian Sign Language and Adamorobe Sign Language By Mary Edward A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Brighton for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Humanities University of Brighton 2021 Abstract In this dissertation, I investigate various manifestations of iconicity and how these are demonstrated in the visual-spatial modality, focusing specifically on Ghanaian Sign Language (GSL) and Adamorobe Sign Language (AdaSL). The dissertation conducts three main empirical analyses comparing GSL and AdaSL. The data for the analyses were elicited from deaf participants using lexical elicitation and narrative tasks. The first study considers iconicity in GSL and AdaSL lexical items. This study additionally compares the iconic strategies used by signers to those produced in gestures by hearing non-signers in the surrounding communities. The second study investigates iconicity in the spatial domain, focusing on the iconic use of space to depict location, motion, action. The third study looks specifically at the use of, simultaneous constructions, and compares the use of different types of simultaneous constructions between the two sign languages. Finally, the dissertation offers a theoretical analysis of the data across the studies from a cognitive linguistics perspective on iconicity in language. The study on lexical iconicity compares GSL and AdaSL signers’ use of iconic strategies across five semantic categories: Handheld tools, Clothing & Accessories, Furniture & Household items, Appliances, and Nature. Findings are discussed with respect to patterns of iconicity across semantic categories, and with respect to similarities and differences between signs and gestures. The result of this study demonstrates that varied iconic patterns for different semantic domains emerge within the sign languages (and gesture) and provide valuable insight into the typology of sign languages and into the community-mediated interplay between sign and gesture in their shared access to the iconic affordances of the visual modality. The analysis of iconicity in the grammatical constructions expressing location, motion and action focuses on similarities and differences between the two sign languages in signers’ telling of a narrative. The analysis shows that the expression of iconicity in the grammatical domain depends on different predicate types, e.g., classifier and lexical predicates and the use of signing perspectives. Although GSL and AdaSL do not show substantial differences in their use of predicate types and perspectives, we identify the possible language contact as reason for some novel structures in AdaSL. The third study investigates the different types of simultaneous constructions (SC) in GSL and AdaSL. The analysis indicates that GSL and AdaSL use different types of SC to almost the same degree. Some of the results from AdaSL were unexpected considering previous research on SC. The cognitive linguistics approaches to iconicity considers the different ways in which grammatical organisation mirrors experience. The framework perceives iconic structures to be instantiated by the meaningfulness of the phonological parameters and the meaningfulness is influenced by signers’ experiential knowledge. 1 Declaration I declare that this dissertation is an original report of my research, has been written by me and has not been submitted for any previous degree. The data presented in this work is entirely my own work and due references have been provided on all supporting literatures and resources. Mary Edward April 2021 2 Acknowledgements All praise and thanks to Elohim. I am so grateful. I would like to thank my supervisory team (Prof. Dr. Pamela Perniss, Prof. Sherman Wilcox, and Dr. Tim Wharton) for their academic guidance, insight, support throughout the period of my PhD. My PhD experience was a blend of UK-Germany supervision (Pamela), American supervision (Sherman) and UK supervision (Tim). I appreciate my amazing supervisors for the different roles they played in my life throughout the duration of my dissertation. I experienced immerse support from each in different areas of my stay in the UK. Thanks to Pamela for the amazing baptism into iconicity, hands on training in ELAN, giving feedback on the several conferences and papers that came out of my PhD, and the several times she had to be a nanny during our face-to-face supervision meetings. Thanks to Sherman for the lessons on cognitive approaches to language and for making me a reader of Langacker! I appreciate Tim for the many ways he supported me through his counsel, support, and effort to ensure that my stay in Brighton was worthwhile. Many people contributed in different ways at the University of Brighton to ensure the progress of my PhD. I want to appreciate Prof. Raphael Salkie and Mr. Ken Turner at the School of Humanities (University of Brighton) for taking their time every year to go through my work and give constructive feedback. Special appreciation to the University of Brighton Doctoral College for my PhD studentship (Thanks for making this dream a reality!) and to all the staff of the Doctoral College (Past and Present) who were one way or the other involved in my PhD. To my colleagues at the University of Brighton Doctoral College, thank you for the friendship and the extra curricula activities that gave me a break from my busy academic (and mummy) life. At the final stages of my PhD, One World Nursery at the Moulsecoomb campus of the University of Brighton became a haven for my daughter. Thanks to all the teachers and the management team for your care and support. These people in diverse ways contributed to the success of my academic journey. I am especially grateful to the late Francis Boison who taught me signing. I appreciate Dr. George Akanlig-Pare (Linguistics Department, University of Ghana) for the different ways he contributed to the success of my studies. Further, I want to appreciate all the lecturers at the Linguistic Department and English Department of the University of Ghana for a good foundational training. Thanks to Øyvin Andersen and Christer Johansson of the Department of Linguistic, Literary and Aesthetic Studies, at the University of Bergen. 3 This dissertation involved fieldwork and I worked with deaf and hearing consultants in different places in Ghana. In Adamorobe, I appreciate James Abresua and his family for hosting me and my family (my daughter and mum) throughout the period of my data collection in Adamorobe. James was very instrumental in recruiting both deaf and hearing people from Adamorobe to participate in my study. I am deeply grateful to the Deaf individuals in Adamorobe who took the time to participate in this project. My heartfelt thanks to Kofi Pare, Ama Obobia, Afua Kaya, Naomi Kwakyebea, Adwowa Agyirwa, Akosua Aboah, Akua Fiakobe, Kwesi Boahen, Kwame Ofori, Kwadwo Bosompra and Kwame Osae. I extend my heartfelt gratitude to the Ghanaian Sign Language (GSL) signers recruited from Medie/Nsawam; Adjei Sarpong, Edward Adumoah, Emmanuel Ofori, Francis Kwame Boison, George McFrazier Coffie, Grace Tawiah Boison, Obiri Francis Kwodwo, Patricia Amarquarye, Nancy Korkor, and Salima Issah Mohammed. I am deeply grateful to the late Francis Kwame Boison who played very instrumental role in recruiting all the GSL signers. For the non-signing gesturers recruited from Adamorobe, I am deeply grateful to the following people for voluntarily taking part in this project; Freeman, Doris, Naomi, Sarah, Bismark, Kwame, Kofi, Nana Kwame, Sisi Nyanku, Veronica. I am also thankful to all the non-signing gesturers from Ketan-Sekondi; Agnes, Alfred, Elijah, Esther, Manfred, Paa Kwesi, Simon, Philomena, Ankomah and John. Many other people played different roles in my life within the period of my PhD. I am thankful to all the members of New Life Brighton (Moulsecoomb) for their love, care, and support. I am particularly thankful to the Reberas (Julian & George) for their constant support and encouragement. I appreciate my auntie (Charlotte) and her family in UK for making me and my family feel so much at home. I appreciate all my friends in different parts of the world who in one way or the other encouraged me throughout this journey. Special thanks goes to Dr. Emma Asonye & members of SDELI, Stanley Babatunde & family, Cynthia Odue & family, Nda Boadi-Manu & family, Mr. Chukwendu & family, Lord Kavi & family, Dr. Austin Ablo, Dr. Esther Manu Barfo, Dr. Andrews Quarcoe, Mrs. Rosina Sheburah Essien, Wendy Kwakye Amoako, Dr. Gabriel Edzordzi Agbozo, Ishmael Adjei, Anastasia Nuworsu, Dr. Frank Tsiwa, Archibald Tagoe & family, Ntsiki Mgxabayi, Adora Udechukwu, Mrs. Gloria Frazier-Williams, Rebecca Ahemaa Danquah, Mrs. Beatrice Ofosu Yeboah, Nafisah, Mr. Michael Asante, Eunice Amoako, Alfred Bekoe, Mrs. Gertrude Sagoe and all the members of CDM-Europe. I am highly indebted to my parents (Dada Simon & Mama Aggie) for the many ways they have contributed to my success. I am especially thankful for the investment of faith and 4 determination which have been my major driving force. My fieldwork and data analysis would not have been possible if not for my mum who travelled with me to Adamorobe for data collection, and then to UK to take care of my daughter so I have enough time to annotate my data. I am forever grateful to my siblings (Mrs. Philomena Arthur, Esther Edward & Papa Kwesi Edward) who also became research assistants and nannies during my fieldwork. I am thankful to my brother (Henry), my mother-in-law (Ndaa), Malwine, Saviour and Mrs. Lucy Sarpong for the different ways they supported my studies. My PhD journey was unique, interesting, and engaging at the same time. The support of my dearest husband (Michael Agronah) has been amazing. From day 1 of my PhD, he never ceased to push me to explore beyond my limits. From attending Linguistics Conferences with me, to reading my work and giving constructive feedback, his constant support helped to finish this dissertation in less than 4 years of full-time study with parenting duties.