The Radical Milieu: A Socio-Ecological Analysis of Salafist Radicalization in Aarhus, 2007-17 Mikkel J. Hjelt The Radical Milieu: A Socio-Ecological Analysis of Salafist Radicalization in Aarhus, 2007-17 PhD Dissertation Politica © Forlaget Politica and the author 2020 ISBN: 978-87-7335-265-6 Cover: Svend Siune Print: Fællestrykkeriet, Aarhus University Layout: Annette Bruun Andersen Submitted July 30, 2020 The public defense takes place October 30, 2020 Published October 2020 Forlaget Politica c/o Department of Political Science Aarhus BSS, Aarhus University Bartholins Allé 7 DK-8000 Aarhus C Denmark Table of Contents Acknowledgments .................................................................................................. 11 Chapter 1: Introduction ......................................................................................... 15 PART I: THEORY, DATA AND RESEARCH METHOD .......................................... 23 Chapter 2: State of the Art, Conceptualization and Theoretical Framework ...... 25 2.1. State of the Art—and beyond ..................................................................... 26 2.1.1. Pathways to the Radical Milieu ........................................................... 27 2.1.2. Participation in the Radical Milieu ..................................................... 29 2.1.3. Pathways Away from the Radical Milieu ............................................ 33 2.1.4. The Emergence of Radical Milieus in Certain Neighborhoods .......... 34 2.2. Theoretical Framework ............................................................................. 37 2.2.1. Susceptibility to Moral Change ........................................................... 40 2.2.2. Exposure through Selection ................................................................. 41 2.2.3. Settings and the Radical Milieu .......................................................... 42 2.2.4. Socio-Spatial Settings ......................................................................... 45 2.2.5. Socializing Affordances ....................................................................... 46 2.2.6. Neighborhood Interaction .................................................................. 48 2.2.7. Systems ................................................................................................ 49 2.3. Concluding Remarks .................................................................................. 51 Chapter 3: Data and Research Method ................................................................ 53 3.1. Methodological Positioning ....................................................................... 54 3.2. Case Selection ............................................................................................ 55 3.2.1. A Radical Salafi-Inspired Milieu ......................................................... 56 3.2.2. The Broader Surroundings: The Gellerup-Toveshøj Neighborhood in Western Aarhus ........................................................................................ 58 3.3. Former Members of the Radical Milieu .................................................... 60 3.3.1. Sampling and Recruitment Strategies ................................................ 62 3.3.2. Who Are They and Why Do They Want to Talk to Me? ..................... 64 3.4. Other Informants: Professionals across Aarhus and Ordinary Gellerup-Toveshøj Residents ........................................................................... 66 3.5. Groups of Informants I Did Not Interview ............................................... 70 3.6. Strengths of Semi-Structured Interviews: Individual and Focus Group Interviews .......................................................................................................... 71 3.7. Weaknesses of Qualitative Interviews: Individual and Focus Group Interviews ......................................................................................................... 73 3.8. The Researcher as Research “Tool”: My Past Experience, Procedures and Personality ................................................................................................. 76 3.9. Interview Guides ....................................................................................... 80 3.9.1. Individual Interview Guide: Former Members of the Radical Milieu ............................................................................................................. 81 5 3.9.2. Focus Group Interview Guide: Ordinary Gellerup-Toveshøj Residents ....................................................................................................... 84 3.10. Data Analysis Strategy ............................................................................. 87 3.11. Ethical Considerations and Guidelines .................................................... 89 PART II: EXPOSURE TO THE RADICAL MILIEU .................................................. 95 Chapter 4: Pathways to the Radical Milieu ........................................................... 97 4.1. Susceptibility to Moral Change: Identity Crisis, Identity Seeking and Life-Changing Events ...................................................................................... 100 4.1.1. Identity Crisis and Identity Seeking................................................... 100 4.1.2. Life-Changing Events ......................................................................... 106 4.2. Selection Processes: Religious Activities, Social Networks and Settings ............................................................................................................ 107 4.2.1. Religious Revival ................................................................................ 108 4.2.2. Religious Intensification .................................................................... 115 4.3. Preexisting and New Social Networks ...................................................... 119 4.3.1. Preexisting Social Networks .............................................................. 120 4.3.2. New Social Networks ......................................................................... 124 4.4. Exploring the Mosque Milieu .................................................................. 126 4.5. Concluding Remarks ................................................................................ 128 PART III: PARTICIPATION WITHIN THE RADICAL MILIEU: SOCIALIZING AFFORDANCES ....................................................................................................... 131 Chapter 5: Cognitive Affordances ....................................................................... 133 5.1. Positive Emotions ..................................................................................... 138 5.1.1. Acceptance and Belonging ................................................................. 139 5.1.2. Being “Someone” through Competences and Qualifications ............ 142 5.1.2. Daily Life: Everyday Activities and Practices .................................... 143 5.1.3. Positive Emotions and Settings ......................................................... 147 5.2. Negative Emotions ................................................................................... 148 5.2.1. An Offline and Online Interactive Approach to Conflict Zones in the Muslim World ........................................................................................ 148 5.2.2. Exclusion and Political Rhetoric and Western Foreign Policies and Muslim Apostate Leaders ..................................................................... 152 5.2.3. Negative Emotions and Settings ....................................................... 155 5.3. Concluding Remarks ................................................................................ 156 Chapter 6: Moral Affordances ............................................................................. 159 6.1. Religious Ideas: A Framework for a Specific Moral Context ................... 162 6.1.1. A Specific Salafi-Inspired Interpretation of Islam............................. 163 6.1.2. Core Tenets of the Salafi-Inspired Version Practiced by the Radical Members ......................................................................................... 165 6.1.3. “Lived” Ritual: Unifying Faith and Practice ...................................... 168 6.2. Religious Cultivation................................................................................. 171 6.2.1. Religious Teachings and Religious “Laboratory” ............................... 171 6 6.2.2. Religious Cultivation and Settings .................................................... 174 6.3. Radicalization: Bridging Ideas and Action .............................................. 175 6.3.1. A Religious Obligation to Help ........................................................... 175 6.3.2. The Consumption of al-Qaeda and Islamic State Propaganda ......... 177 6.3.3. Exemplary Actions ............................................................................. 179 6.3.4. Appeals to Emotion and Reason ........................................................ 181 6.3.5. Decisions to Leave for the Conflict in Syria Unfold in Radical Micro-Settings ..............................................................................................183 6.4. Activism: High-Risk and Low-Risk Activism ......................................... 184 6.4.1. High-Risk Activism ............................................................................ 185 6.4.2. Humanitarian Relief Workers