Assessment of the Potential for Aquaculture Development in Northland NIWA Client Report: AKL2003-012 January 2003 NIWA Project: ENT03101 Assessment of the Potential for Aquaculture Development in Northland Author Andrew Jeffs Prepared for Enterprise Northland – Aquaculture Development Group NIWA Client Report: AKL2003- 012 January 2003 NIWA Project: ENT03101 National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research Ltd 269 Khyber Pass Road, Newmarket, Auckland P O Box 109695, Auckland, New Zealand Phone +64-9-375 2050, Fax +64-9-375 2051 www.niwa.co.nz Ó All rights reserved. This publication may not be reproduced or copied in any form without the permission of the client. Such permission is to be given only in accordance with the terms of the client's contract with NIWA. This copyright extends to all forms of copying and any storage of material in any kind of information retrieval system. Contents Executive Summary ii Recommendations iv Introduction 1 The Global Aquaculture Scene 5 The New Zealand Aquaculture Scene 8 Status of Aquaculture in Northland 17 Traditional Aquaculture 17 Past and Present Aquaculture 17 Physical and Human Resources for Aquaculture in the Northland Region 37 Controls on Aquaculture in the Region 42 Potential Aquaculture Activities for the Northland Region 47 Advantages for Aquaculture 47 Disadvantages for Aquaculture 50 Land-Based Freshwater Aquaculture 52 Eels - long and short-finned eels, tuna (Anguilla dieffenbachii & A. australis) 52 Background 52 Eel aquaculture in New Zealand - a historical perspective 53 Biology and implications for culture 55 Culture techniques 56 Additional issues for eel farmers 58 The Study Area 59 Conclusion 61 Giant freshwater prawns - Malaysian river prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) 62 Background 62 Growing Biology 62 The Study Area 64 Conclusions 64 Freshwater crayfish, koura, keewai (Paranephrops planifrons & P. zealandicus) 65 Background 65 Growing Biology 65 The Study Area 66 Conclusions 66 Salmon species, hamana 66 Background 66 Growing Biology 68 The Study Area 68 Conclusions 69 Trout, taraute, brown trout & rainbow trout (Salmo trutta & Salmo gairdenrii) 69 Background 69 Growing Biology 70 The Study Area 70 Conclusions 71 Channel catfish & Brown bullhead (Ictalurus punctatus & I. nebulosus) 71 Background 71 Growing Biology 72 The Study Area 72 Conclusions 72 Whitebait, inanga, atutahi (Galaxias species) 72 The Study Area 73 Conclusions 73 Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella ), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), goldfish (Carassius auratus) 74 Background 74 The Study Area 74 Conclusions 74 Land-Based Seawater Aquaculture 75 Rock lobsters, crayfish, koura papatea, pawharu (Jasus edwardsii & J. verreauxi) 75 Background 75 Growing Biology 76 The Study Area 79 Conclusions 80 Paua (Haliotis iris, H. australis, H. virginea, H. rufescens) 81 Background 81 Growing Biology 83 The Study Area 86 Conclusions 88 Seahorses, hinamoki (Hippocampus abdominalis) 89 Background 89 Growing Biology 93 The Study Area 94 Conclusions 96 Grey mullet, kanae (Mugil cephalus) 96 Background 96 Growing Biology 97 The Study Area 97 Conclusions 97 Large fin fish species - snapper (Pagrus auratus), turbot (Colistium nudipinnis), kingfish (Seriola lalandi), groper (Polyprion oxygeneios) 98 Background 98 Growing Biology 99 The Study Area 100 Conclusions 100 Flat fish species – yellow-belly flounder (Rhombosolea leporina), greenback flounder (Rhombosolea tapirina), black flounder (Rhombosolea retiaria). 101 Background 101 Growing Biology 101 The Study Area 102 Conclusions 102 Gracilaria seaweeds (G. chilensis, G. secundata , G. pulvinata , G. truncata ) 102 Background 102 Growing Biology 103 The Study Area 104 Conclusions 104 Shellfish/Fin Fish Hatchery 105 Background 105 Growing Biology 105 The Study Area 106 Conclusions 106 Scampi (Metanephros challengeri) 107 Background 107 Growing Biology 107 The Study Area 108 Conclusions 108 Swimming crab, papaka (Ovalipes catharus) 108 Background 108 Growing Biology 109 The Study Area 110 Conclusions 111 Penaeid prawns (Penaeus spp.) 111 Background 111 Growing Biology 111 The Study Area 112 Conclusions 112 Sea urchins, sea eggs, kina (Evechinus chloroticus) 112 Background 112 Growing Biology 113 The Study Area 113 Conclusions 114 Holothurians, sea-cucumbers (Stichopus mollis) 114 Background 114 Growing Biology 114 The Study Area 115 Conclusions 115 Seaweeds: Agarweed (Pterocladia lucida & P. capillacea), Dog-ear seaweed (Curdiea coriacea), Asparagus seaweed (Asparagopsis spp.), Delisea spp. Kelp (Ecklonia radiata) 115 Background 115 Growing Biology 116 The Study Area 117 Conclusions 117 Wakame seaweed (Undaria pinnatifida) 117 Background 117 Growing Biology 118 The Study Area 118 Conclusions 119 Nori seaweed, karengo (Porphyra spp.) 119 Background 119 Growing Biology 119 The Study Area 120 Conclusions 120 Neptune’s Necklace (Hormosira banksii) 120 Seabed Aquaculture and Enhancement 121 Introduction 121 Rock Lobsters (Jasus edwardsii & J. verreauxi) 121 Background 121 Growing Biology 122 The Study Area 123 Conclusions 124 Paua (Haliotis iris, H. australis, H. virginea) 125 Background 126 Growing Biology 127 The Study Area 127 Conclusions 128 Snapper and kingfish (Pagrus auratus, Seriola lalandi) 128 Background 128 Growing Biology 129 The Study Area 129 Conclusions 130 Green-lipped or Greenshell™ mussel, kutai (Perna canaliculus) 131 Background 131 Growing Biology 132 The Study Area 133 Conclusions 137 Pacific oyster, tio (Crassostrea gigas) 138 Background 138 Growing Biology 140 The Study Area 141 Conclusions 142 The rock oyster, tiopara, ngakihi (Saccostrea commercialis) 143 Background 143 Growing Biology 143 The Study Area 144 Conclusions 144 Blue mussel, torewai (Mytilus edulis) 144 Background 144 Growing Biology 145 The Study Area 145 Conclusions 145 Flat oyster, tiopara (Ostrea chilensis) 146 Background 146 Growing Biology 146 The Study Area 147 Conclusions 148 Scallop, tipai (Pecten novaezealandiae) 148 Background 148 Growing Biology 149 The Study Area 149 Conclusions 151 Toheroa, tuatua and pipi or kokota (Paphies ventricosa, P. subtriangulata, P. australis) 152 Background 152 Growing Biology 153 The Study Area 154 Conclusions 154 Littleneck clams, cockles, tuangi (Chione (Austrovenus) stutchburyi) 155 Background 155 Growing Biology 155 The Study Area 156 Conclusions 156 Mud snails, karahu (Amphibola crenata) 157 Background 157 Growing Biology 157 The Study Area 157 Conclusions 158 Horse mussel, taharoa or waharoa (Atrina zelandica) 158 Background 158 Growing Biology 158 The Study Area 159 Conclusions 159 Surf clams, kaikaikaroro, kuhakuha, pukauri (Mactra spp. & Spisula spp.) 159 Background 159 Growing Biology 160 The Study Area 160 Conclusions 160 Pearl oysters (Pinctada fucata & Pinctada maxima) 160 Harbour clams, purimu (Venerupis largillierti) 161 Geoducks, hohehohe (Panopea zelandica & P. smithae) 161 Whelks, kawari (Austrofusus glans, Cominella spp.) 162 Octopus, wheke (Octopus maorum) 162 Medicinal Uses of Shellfish 163 Valuable Shell Species 163 Seasponges 164 Aquaculture Tourism 165 References 166 Reviewed by: Approved for release by: Formatting checked ……………………… Executive Summary Aquaculture directly employs around 400 people (around 320 FTE - full-time employees) and earns more than an estimated $20 million a year for the Northland Region. Economic studies indic ate that aquaculture in Northland is likely to indirectly stimulate economic activity of around $20M and generate at least a further 100 jobs. The sectors of the regional economy that benefit the most from aquaculture indirectly are manufacturing, trade, property and business services. Aquaculture in Northland is growing, doubling its total turnover in the past decade. This growth rate is slower than the growth of both the New Zealand and Australian aquaculture industries, but is similar to global aquaculture growth of about 11% per annum. The oyster farming industry in Northland is growing at a slower rate than its South Australian counterpart, which has grown at over 17% per annum in the last three years. There is excellent potential for the development of aquaculture in the Northland Region because the area has a very good range of growing conditions, good existing infrastructure and candidate species, as well as an established local aquaculture industry. Estimates have put the potential for the Northland aquaculture industry to grow to $100 million in ten years, a growth rate of around 20% per annum. At $100 million the aquaculture industry could be expected to employ around 2,000 people directly (1600 FTE), and generate a further 700 jobs indirectly. Currently Maori are extensively involved in aquaculture activities in Northland at many levels; employees, owners, owner-operators, and shareholders and beneficiaries of larger companies. In the past there have been extensive efforts to assist Maori to use aquaculture to further develop their economic base in Northland. That opportunity continues today, especially as Northland iwi are well placed to receive substantial seafood assets and earnings through the proposed allocation from the Treaty of Waitangi Fisheries Commission. Some of these resources could well be invested in developing the region’s aquaculture. The mechanisms for encouraging this development should follow the more successful examples of economic intervention previously used for Maori aquaculture development in Northland. Research results to date indicates that many of the negative environmental and social impacts of aquaculture activities in Northland are