South African Prisoner -of-War Experience during and after World War II: 1939 – c.1950 by Karen Horn Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (History) in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Ste llenbosch University Supervisor: Professor W.R. Nasson December 2012 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Declaration By submitting this dissertation electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that the reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe on any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. December 2012 Copyright © 2012 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved ii Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Abstract This thesis narrates and analyses the experiences of a sample of South Africans who were captured during the Second World War. The research is based on oral testimony, memoirs, archival evidence and to a lesser degree on secondary sources. The former prisoners-of-war (POW) who participated in the research and those whose memoirs were studied were all captured at the Battle of Sidi Rezegh in November 1941 or during the fall of Tobruk in June 1942. The aim of the research is to present oral and written POW testimony in order to augment the dearth of knowledge regarding South African POW historical experience. The scope of the research includes the decision to volunteer for the Union Defence Force, the experiences in North Africa, capture and initial experiences in the so-called ‘hell camps of North Africa’, the transportation to Italy and life in the Italian prison camps, events surrounding the Italian Armistice and the consequent escape attempts thereafter. For those POWs who did not escape, the experience of captivity continued with transport to Germany, experiences in German camps, including working in labour camps and the Allied bombing campaign. Lastly, the end of the war and the experience of liberation, which in most cases included forced marches, are dealt with before the focus turns once again towards South Africa and the experience of homecoming and demobilisation. The affective and intellectual experiences of the POWs are also investigated as their personal experience and emotions are presented and examined. These include the experience of guilt and shame during capture, the acceptance or non-acceptance of captivity, blame, attitudes towards the enemy and towards each other, as well as the experience of fear and hope, which was especially relevant during the bombing campaign and during periods when they were being transported between countries and camps. The thesis concludes with an analysis of the POW experience which looks at aspects relating to identity among South African POWs. The final conclusion is drawn that the POW identity took precedence over national identity. As a result of the strong POW identity and their desire for complete freedom and desire to claim individuality, the POWs did not, on the whole, display great interest in becoming involved in South African politics after the war even though many of them strongly disagreed with the Nationalist segregationist ideologies that claimed increasing support between 1945 and 1948. iii Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Opsomming Hierdie tesis beskryf en ontleed die ervarings van dié Suid-Afrikaners wat tydens die Tweede Wêreldoorlog gevange geneem is. Die navorsing is gebaseer op mondelinge getuienis, memoires, argivale bewysmateriaal en, in ’n mindere mate, op sekondêre bronne. Die voormalige krygsgevangenes wat aan die navorsing deelgeneem het en wie se memoires bestudeer is, is almal in November 1941 by die Geveg van Sidi Rezegh of in Junie 1942 met die val van Tobruk gevange geneem. Die doel van die navorsing is om mondelinge en skriftelike getuienisse van krygsgevangenes aan te bied ten einde die gebrekkige kennis ten opsigte van Suid-Afrikaanse krygsgevangenes se historiese ervaring uit te brei. Die omvang van die navorsing sluit die besluit in om vrywillig diens te doen vir die Unie-verdedigingsmag, die ervarings in Noord-Afrika, gevangeneming en eerste ervarings in die sogenaamde “helkampe van Noord-Afrika”, die vervoer na Italië en lewe in die Italiaanse gevangeniskampe, gebeure rondom die Italiaanse wapenstilstand en die daaropvolgende ontsnappingspogings. Vir die krygsgevangenes wat nie ontsnap het nie, het die ervaring van gevangenskap voortgeduur deur vervoer na Duitsland, ervarings in Duitse kampe, waaronder strafkampe, en die bombarderings deur die Geallieerdes. Ten slotte word aandag gegee aan die einde van die oorlog en die ervaring van vryheid, wat in die meeste gevalle gedwonge marse behels het, voordat die fokus terugkeer na Suid-Afrika en die ervaring van tuiskoms en demobilisasie. Die affektiewe en intellektuele ervarings van die krygsgevangenes word ook ontleed, aangesien hul persoonlike ervarings en emosies ondersoek en aangebied word. Dit sluit die ervaring van skuld en skaamte tydens die gevangeneming in, die aanvaarding of nie-aanvaarding van gevangeskap, blaam, houdings teenoor die vyand en mekaar, sowel as die ervaring van vrees en hoop, wat veral belangrik was gedurende die bombarderingsveldtog en vervoer tussen lande en kampe. Die tesis sluit af met ’n ontleding van aspekte wat verband hou met identiteit onder die Suid- Afrikaanse krygsgevangenes. Die bevinding is dat die krygsgevangene-identiteit voorrang geniet het bo die nasionale identiteit. Verder het die sterk drang na volkome vryheid en die begeerte om hul individualiteit terug te kry daartoe gelei dat die voormalige krygsgevangenes na die oorlog oor die algemeen ’n ambivalensie jeens Suid-Afrikaanse politiek openbaar. iv Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements I dedicate this thesis to my parents, Estelle and Fred Horn, as without their support and encouragement this research would never have been done. My very good friend, Neil Cochrane, thank you for your motivation and inspiration. Thank you also to my supervisor, Prof Bill Nasson, for sharing his insights, knowledge and positive support, giving me confidence to freely give expression to the results of my research. Thank you to Prof Albert Grundlingh for suggesting the theme of the research as well as pointing me to readings and people who contributed to the study. Thanks also to Taffy and David Shearing in Mossel Bay for putting me in touch with former prisoners-of-war as well as family members of former prisoners-of-war who kindly shared the memoirs of those who have already passed on. Most importantly I would like to thank all the former prisoners-of-war who participated in the interviews and who patiently answered my questions. They are: Bernard Schwikkard, who passed away in October 2011, Bill Hindshaw, Clive Luyt, who passed away in September 2011, David Brokensha, Dick Dickinson, Fred Geldenhuis, who passed away in August 2011, Fred van Alphen Stahl, George Tewkesbury, Matthys Beukes, Michael de Lisle, Stanley Smollan, and Wessel Oosthuizen. v Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Contents Abbreviations vii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Chapter 2: Literature review 20 Chapter 3: Background 33 Chapter 4: Battle and capture in North Africa 43 Chapter 5: Daily life in Italy 80 Chapter 6: Confinement and lost liberty 115 Chapter 7: Confronting German discipline 143 Chapter 8: Conflict and compassion in Germany 164 Chapter 9: The home front and going home 1939 – c.1950 198 Chapter 10: Concluding perspectives 214 A Strange Afterword 242 Bibliography 244 Figure 1: The Prisoner-of-War Medal vi Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Abbreviations ACF: Active Citizen Force BFC: British Free Corps HQ: Headquarters CO: Commanding officer NCO: Non-commissioned officer AG: Adjutant-General BFC: British Free Corps CRU: Civil Resettlement Units DMR: Die Middelandse Regement DPW: Directorate of Prisoners of War ICRC: International Committee of the Red Cross MI9: British Military Intelligence MOTHS: Memorable Order of the Tin Hats NEAS: Non-European Army Services OB: Ossewabrandwag (Ox-wagon sentinel) OKW: Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (High Command of the German Armed Forces) POW: Prisoner-of-war POWRA: British Prisoner-of-War Relatives Association POWRFA: South African Prisoner-of-War Relatives and Friends Association RAF: Royal Air Force RPS: Regiment President Steyn vii Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za RSM: Regimental Sergeant Major SDF: Seaward Defence Force Sgt: Sergeant UDF: Union Defence Force PWIB: Prisoner-of-war Information Bureaux viii Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Chapter 1: Introduction Motivation and rationale It is indeed extremely hard to generalize about prison life and conditions. It is so much a matter of personal experience [...] the truth is that prison life was – like all life – good at times and bad at times, and this was conditioned both by outward circumstance and the mood state of the individual concerned.1 Reverend James Chutter was a senior chaplain with the 2nd South African Division who spent most of World War II in prisoner-of-war camps along with many other South Africans. In his memoirs he claimed that he was able to present an objective narrative of POW experience as he witnessed soldiers of most Allied countries struggle with the demands of captivity. In general, prisoner-of-war (POW) experience may be summed up by Chutter’s statement above, but this thesis aims to critically analyse POW experience, especially in terms of how the ‘outward circumstance and the mood state of the individual’ influenced the ‘good [and] bad’ experiences to determine the extent to which POW experience can in fact be compared to ‘all life’, as stated by Chutter. When one considers that each prisoner approached and experienced POW life differently as a result of their unique personalities and characteristics, the investigation attains a far more complex level, especially with regard to South African POWs and the unique context of their country at that time.