ISSUE 4, 2016 Editorial focus: The challenges of our planet demand leadership that is visionary, bold and strong Electoral Security Challenges DDR The Women’s Al Mahdi’s Colonial Mediation Structures in of Liberal in the DRC Situation Case before Legacy of in the DRC, Europe and Peace and Room in the ICC Civil-military Lesotho and Lessons from Statebuilding Africa Relations and Kenya APSA in Divided Democratic Stability in In this Issue: Societies West Africa CONTENTS EDITORIAL 2 by Vasu Gounden FEATURES 3 Electoral Mediation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Lesotho and Kenya: A Comparative Perspective by Victor Shale and Robert Gerenge 11 Developing Security Structures in Europe: Lessons Learned from the African Peace and Security Architecture by Floris van der Beek 18 Challenges of Liberal Peace and Statebuilding in Divided Societies by Christopher Zambakari 26 Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: Can Stability Prevail? by Kitenge Fabrice Tunda 33 The Women’s Situation Room in Africa: An Initiative for Peaceful and Inclusive Elections by Irene Limo 42 Al Mahdi’s Case before the International Criminal Court: A Landmark Decision in the Protection of Cultural and Religious Sites by Frédéric Foka Taffo 50 The Colonial Legacy of Civil-military Relations and Democratic Stability in West Africa by Naila Salihu Cover photo: Malians vote at a polling station in the Ecole de la République in Bamako, Mali, during the presidential election (28 July 2013). UN Photo/Marco Dormino conflict trends I 1 EDITORIAL BY VASU GOUNDEN The year 2016 will be remembered as a watershed year challenged by “people’s power” and mainstream religion the world over. It presented many surprises and upstaged was challenged by alternative religious persuasions. many political pundits. In Europe, many were shocked Fear of what was expected in the future triumphed by the exit of Britain from the European Union – better over the hope that dominated the last 25 years. Prophets known as Brexit. In South Africa, power changed hands of doom have had fertile ground to plough and plant the in key local government structures, putting the opposition seeds of fear and hatred. In many ways, we are witnessing in charge of the legislative, administrative and financial the demise of liberalism and democracy and the rise of capitals of the country and dislodging the long-established conservatism and authoritarianism. The forces that will liberation movement and current ruling party of South shape the world over the next 25 years can either plunge Africa, the African National Congress (ANC). A few years the world into a plethora of closed enclaves characterised ago, this result would have been unthinkable. The year by strict laws restricting the movement of people, goods ended with what must be one of the greatest political and services, or they can build a world on the globalised upsets ever: the defeat of Hillary Clinton by Donald Trump planet we have shaped over the last 25 years. for the powerful position of president-elect of the United Historical periods dominated by liberalism and States (US). Trump will be inaugurated as the US president democracy or conservatism and authoritarianism are not on 20 January 2017, in what appears to be a very divided new. However, what is new is a planet with seven billion country. people, the majority of whom are urbanised and living in While surprising at the time they occurred, all these close proximity to each other, either physically or through events (among many others) can, in retrospect, be traced social media. This phenomenon challenges our ability to to the ever-growing disenchantment with the current co-exist and cooperate for mutual benefit. Perhaps this is a governing establishment globally. This is remarkable, juncture in the history of humanity where neither liberalism because the world is in one of its most prosperous nor conservatism, neither democracy nor authoritarianism periods, largely due to the significant positive changes will suffice. Maybe this is a time for leaders who are able that have occurred in the last 25 years since the end of to take the best from these ideologies and who are able the cold war. During this time, dictatorships made way to transcend identity, manage complexity, lead with new for democracies, the rule of law replaced the abuse of vision and inspiration, build bridges between people in power, wars and conflicts de-escalated significantly, creative ways, and promote order and stability. This is women gained more empowerment than in any other certainly a time for leadership that is visionary, bold and time in history, science and technology entered an era of strong, yet caring and benevolent. The challenges of our unimaginable possibilities, and millions around the world planet – and this moment in time – demand no less. started to enjoy a better standard of living. However, these 25 years have also seen the growth of terrorism; human, drug and arms trafficking; a rise in racial and ethnic divisions and discrimination; the growth Vasu Gounden is the Founder and Executive Director of ACCORD. of inequality to dangerous proportions; and a steady rise in unemployment and poverty in many developed and developing countries. These trends were coupled with a drop in public confidence in the establishments of government and religion. Mainstream governments were 2 I conflict trends ELECTORAL MEDIATION IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO, LESOTHO AND KENYA: A COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE BY VICTOR SHALE AND ROBERT GERENGE UN PHOTO/MYRIAM ASMANI Introduction (2005 and 2008), Zambia (2015 and 2016), Côte d’Ivoire The history of elections in Africa shows that the continent (2010), Guinea (2015) and Uganda (2016) – to mention a has made significant strides in ensuring that regular few. In the majority of these cases, the political elite have multiparty elections replace unconventional mechanisms been accused of manipulating the electoral process in their of seizure of political power. Increasingly, elections have favour. Consequently, the electoral environment in most become highly competitive for the political parties, and countries has become more complex in terms of democracy candidates fight for the apparent social and economic gains and governance, amidst high demands from citizens for accrued from the state. Regrettably for citizens of many greater participation and accountable governance. In their countries on the continent, regular elections in Africa have continued search for alternative leaders to deliver the social not translated into the anticipated dividends of democracy – and economic dividends of governance, political leaders in which was ushered with much hope in the early 1990s. Instead, there have been cases of election-related conflicts – Above: The history of elections in Africa shows that the as witnessed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) continent has made significant strides in ensuring that (2006 and 2011), Lesotho (1998 and 2007), Burundi (2016), regular multiparty elections replace unconventional Kenya (1992, 1997 and 2007), Madagascar (2007), Zimbabwe mechanisms of seizure of political power. conflict trends I 3 10°E 15°E CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC 25°E Obo 30°E SOUTH SUDAN 5°N Bangassou 5°N Bangui Yambio Juba DEMOCRATIC Berbérati Mobaye Torit Gbadolite Bondo Ango Dakwa Mbaïki N O R D - Libenge B AS-U É L É Dungu Faradje REPUBLIC OF Nola U B ANG I Uélé Gemena Businga Likati HAU T - THE CONGO SUD - Buta Isiro U É L É Watsa U B ANG I Gulu ala ong i Budjala M g Lisala Bumba Wamba n a UGANDA b U o MONGA L A Ituri Oyem Ouésso Impfondo ng Bagbunda Bunia EQUATORIAL i o or u C Lop i Bongandanga Basoko Mambasa Lake g i Lake GUINEA n Aruwu m Bafwasende Kyoga a Basankusu I T U R I Albert b nga u ulo Makokou O L Kisangani Libreville É QUA T E U R Befale Beni Kampala Jinja Ilungu T SHOP O Kasese GABON Mbandaka Maringa Butembo 0° CONGO Busira Boende Lubero 0° Tsh Ubundu Owando uapa N O R D - Lake Port- Ingende Bokungu Opala L Edward Lambaréné u Lubutu KIV U Lake Ewo Sa a Gentil lon L l Koulamoutou ga om a Rutshuru Victoria Lukolela e Ikela b la a Punia Franceville T SHUAP A Goma Bukoba Musoma Mouila Lac RWANDA Inongo ndi Lac Uli Kivu Kigali Djambala Mai-Ndombe Lomela Bukavu Kutu MAI - Shabunda Mwanza Tchibanga Kindu Mushie NDOM B E Katako- Luke SUD-KIV U nie Dekese Lodja Kombe MANI E M A Bujumbura Sibiti Kagulube Bandundu Kas Kibombo Uvira K ai SANKU R U BURUNDI w Lodi Sa Dolisie Brazzaville i nk l ur Fizi Kinshasa u u Kasongo SA Pointe- A H Masi-Manimba Pene- S Kenge Noire Luozi KIN K W I L U Idiofa Lusambo Mende Kigoma 5°S Kikwit Tabora 5°S Cabinda KONGO CENTRAL Mbanza- Demba Lubao Kongolo (ANGOLA) Ngungu uga Boma Matadi Gungu KASA I Mbuji- L OMAM I uk Kabalo L Kalemie Feshi Mayi Kabinda ATLANTIC M’banza Congo Tshikapa Kananga Niemba UNITED Kasongo- Ka L sa KASAI Makena T ANGANYIK A a REPUBLIC i L k OCEAN Lunda C E N T R A L u e a OF KASAI l K K W ANG O a Moba T Luiza b Manono a w ORIENTAL Lu a n a v TANZANIA n u g Uíge g Kaniama a Pepa a o n y Sumbawanga National capital i HAU T - L OMAM I Molira k District capital Lucapa Kapanga Pweto a Lake Rukwa Caxito City, town Luanda Kamina L U A L A B A Mbeya Bukama Major airport L Lake N’dalatando u lu Musabira Mweru International boundary Malanje Saurimo a HAU T - Province boundary 10°S ANGOLA Lubudi K A T ANG A Kasama 10°S Main road DEMOCRATIC Mutshatsha Kolwezi Kasenga REPUBLIC OF THE Dilolo M Secondary road Likasi CONGO L a A Railroad Sumbe k e L ze Lubumbashi Luena be M m A 0 100 200 300 km a a Z io l R W a Kuito w 0 100 200 mi Solwezi i Huambo The boundaries and names shown and the designations used I Sakania on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.