Tree Selection Series WSFNR15-16 March 2015 TreeTree Gender:Gender: Sexual Reproduction Strategies by Dr. Kim D. Coder, Professor of Tree Biology & Health Care Warnell School of Forestry & Natural Resources, University of Georgia Your grandmother suggested sex would get you into trouble if you were not careful. For tree profes- sionals, not appreciating tree sexual expression can lead to unexpected tree growth performance, failed client expectations, and liability and maintenance problems. Tree sex expression is more complex than simply thinking of a “boy” or “girl” tree. This publication will cover almost exclusively flowering trees or Angiosperms. Gymnosperms generate many seed holding organs (male and female cones in conifers), but few gender issues. The term flower defines an Angiosperm and not a Gymnosperm tree species. Not Animals For animals, gender is visible as sexual parts, secondary features, and behavior. Having bright feathers, unique coloration, manes of hair, and acting either male or female is a fact of life. Sexual identity is usually accepted as a function of physical features. For humans, maleness and femaleness are polar ends of genetic programing and social life. Not so for trees. While human gender issues spawn jokes and angst, tree gender identification can cause great confusion. Preliminary tree gender identification is determined by types of flowers or cones generated. In Angiosperms, tree flowers can have male parts, female parts, both male and female parts, or none at all. Some of these parts are functional and some are not. You can not tell flower function (or gender) just by looking. Nebulous In flowering trees, tree gender can change -- from season to season over the life of a tree as the envi- ronment changes, or gender can remain constant for life. Historically, at a particular life stage tree flowers were examined for the presence, distribution, and number of male and female sexual parts. Gender was recorded based upon appearance at one point in time. Unfortunately, sexual appearance and function are not tightly bound in trees. It is not what flowers look like, but how they function over time that determine a tree’s true gender. Tree sexual classes are not always as they appear nor are they discrete opposites. Male and female functions exist along a wide morphological gradient. Two examples are given in Figure 1 for Fraxinus (ash) In compliance with federal law, including the provisions of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Sections 503 and 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, the University of Georgia does not discriminate on the basis of race, sex, religion, color, national or ethnic origin, age, disability, or military service in its administration of educational policies, programs, or activities; its admissions policies; scholarship and loan programs; athletic or other University-administered programs; or employment. In addition, the University does not discriminate on the basis of sexual orientation consistent with the University non-discrimination policy. Inquiries or complaints should be directed to the director of the Equal Opportunity Office, Peabody Hall, 290 South Jackson Street, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602. Telephone 706-542-7912 (V/TDD). Fax 706-542-2822. AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY / AFFIRMATIVE ACTION INSTITUTION. and Figure 2 for Populus (aspen / cottonwood). Ash and aspen are viewed as significantly different in their sexual reproduction strategies, but the figures appear much more similar than simple botanical descriptions would suggest. Maturity Trees become sexually mature, depending upon species and the individual, anywhere between 1 and 50 years of age. Figure 3. Sexual maturity is commencing the generation of functional flowers and cones. Tree flowers and cones can range from: large, colorful and showy; tiny, green and inconspicuous; or various sizes and shapes of cones. A single Angiosperm flower can have: male parts which may or may not work; female parts which may or may not work; both male and female parts all of which may or may not work; or flowers without sexual parts (asexual flowers). A single tree flower with both fully functional male and female parts is called “cosexual.” Many terms have been used for this flower type including bisexual, perfect, or hermaphroditic. A single tree flower could also generate only male (“andro”) or female (“gyno”) functional parts, but not both. In addition, any tree might produce only cosexual, male, or female flowers, in any combination. Figure 4 shows a simple tree sexual strategy triangle. Tree Flowers Functional sexual reproductive parts in trees allow male genetic components (pollen) to reach female components of the same species, and then grow to fertilize an egg, producing a viable embryo held within a seed. This fertilization process in Angiosperms is facilitated by flowers. A cosexual tree flower is shown in cross-section in Figure 5. The distances between flower parts, the absolute and relative size of different parts, and the aerodynamic shape, aesthetic appeal, color, and odors of different parts all can be varied genetically in order to maximize chances of successful pollination, fertilization, embryo growth, and seed or fruit distribution. For example, if the stamens (male parts with pollen) are very short and the pistil (female part with an ovary) is long, pollen will be less likely to fall onto the pistil within the same flower. Tree flowers have standard parts. Some parts are modified or emphasized in different flower forms. Male or female flowers can have some stunted vestige parts, or full sized nonfunctional parts, of the opposite sex visible inside each flower. Figure 6. In The Genes An angiosperm tree cosexual flower for example consists of four stacked components. (Figure 7). The components include the sepal area, petal area, male area and female area. The sepal and petal areas are not part of the functional reproductive parts, but influence wind flow and animal pollinator effectiveness. Geneti- cally, the four flower components are controlled by separate gene sets in three zones within a tree flower: Zone 1 = female and male part development controlled by specific gene sets. Zone 2 = male part and petal area development controlled by gene sets which assure pollen distribution and pollinator attraction. Zone 3 = vegetative zone development controlled by specific gene sets which display, support and protect reproductive parts. In this case, instead of one set of genes conveying gender, trees have developed three unique gene sets which control cosexual flower formation and gender expression. Each of these gene sets have been separately driven by many agents to affect efficient reproduction. Dr. Kim D. Coder Warnell School University of Georgia 2 Modified Gender of a flower is governed by genetic components within flower bud meristems modified by growth regulators. Growth regulators involved in modifying gene expression, regulators like auxin, cytokinins, and gibberellins, are in-turn modified by tree health and environmental impacts. For example, applications of single growth regulators or mixes of regulators have caused reversals of flower bud gender expression. In addition to biology, flowering season weather can play a critical part in reproductive success. Frosts can kill sensitive reproductive tissues. For example, freezing Spring temperatures can damage white oak (Quercus alba) female flowers leading to acorn crop failures 3 out of every 5 years in some locations. Severe flowering season heat loads and drought conditions can prevent proper flower expansion or cause premature tissue aging. For example in sugar maple (Acer saccharum), stigma (female) receptivity is governed by tem- perature. The greater temperatures above average, the fewer days female parts are functional. Sex Classes In a group of trees of the same species, some trees might generate only male flowers while other trees might generate only female flowers. In some species, a group of trees could have cosexual, male and female individuals. A predominantly male tree might generate a scattered few female or cosexual flowers. A predomi- nately cosexual tree might generate a few male flowers. A predominately female tree could generate occasional cosexual flowers. The variation in tree flowering is great! There are a number of terms used for all these different combinations of tree sexual strategies. Some terms have been misused and many are complex combinations of morphological terms. One of the best way to visualize the many different tree sexual strategies is given in Figure 8. Note, if the prefix “andro” is used, it denotes male dominance, while the prefix “gyno” denotes female dominance. Gender Walk Tree sexual classification depends upon both any flower parts present and their function. The propor- tion of male and female parts in flowers, and the proportion of cosexual, male and female flowers on a tree, begin to determine potential gender. The functional sexual class of a tree is based upon performance as a viable pollen provider or successful ovule parent in passing genes onto another generation. Functional estimates of gender are made by counting the number of flowers producing pollen grains and the number of flowers generating fruit and viable seeds. Individual trees which produce proportionally much more pollen within a species can be considered functionally male. Individual trees which produce proportionally much more