Nested Narrative: Þórðar Saga Hreðu and Material Engagement By Elisabeth Ida Ward A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Scandinavian Languages and Literature in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in Charge: John Lindow, Chair Karin Sanders Margaret Conkey Fall 2012 ABSTRACT Nested Narrative: Þórðar saga hreðu and Material Engagement By Elisabeth Ida Ward Doctor of Philosophy in Scandinavian Languages and Literature University of California, Berkeley Professor John Lindow, Chair Þórðar saga hreðu is an Icelandic saga, of the type usually referred to as Sagas of Icelanders or Family Sagas, that lacks much of the drama of other sagas of a similar type. The dissertation utilizes this genre outlier to test a new method for analyzing the sagas, which combines literary analysis with recent anthropological theory. This method foregrounds the interaction of the material world with the saga narrative as an essential way that meaning is manifested. Chapter 1 looks at the saga’s physical attestation in manuscripts, which offers a new emphasis on the saga as the product of a local community. Chapter 2 turns to the human-made objects referenced within the text, suggesting that the depiction of the material world in this saga is in keeping with the non- modern milieu from which it originated. Chapter 3 focuses on scenes in the saga where characters are described as moving through the landscape, and analyzes these as a way to demonstrate how co-constitutive the real landscape was for the saga narrative. Chapter 4 employs Cultural Memory theory to explain why certain placenames are included in the saga instead of others, noting that placename references are a clear invitation to include the real material world into the meaning-making of the saga. Chapter 5 looks at how the dynamic between the narrative of the saga and the local landscape of Skagafjörður as place has been disrupted in the modern period. The Conclusion offers a broad assessment of why repositioning the material world back into the interpretation of saga narratives is important. 1 IN MEMORY OF MY BROTHER, WILLIAM LANGE JR. FOR MY FAMILY ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv LIST OF FIGURES vi INTRODUCTION: EXHIBITING THE TEXT 1 CHAPTER 1: MANUSCRIPT NARRATIVES 11 CHAPTER 2: THINGS IN ÞÓRÐAR SAGA HREÐU AND IN ARCHAEOLOGY 30 CHAPTER 3: LANDSCAPES OF MOVEMENT AND MEMORY 55 CHAPTER 4: PLACES TO REMEMBER, PLACES TO FORGET 79 CHAPTER 5: SIGNS BY THE WAYSIDE 108 CONCLUSION: ENGAGING THE MATERIAL 127 BIBLIOGRAPHY 138 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The seeds for this project began to germinate during the summer of 2002, when I was invited to participate on an archaeological dig in Skagafjörður, Iceland. So I want to start by thanking the people who made that experience possible. William W. Fitzhugh gave me permission to participate as part of my duties at the Smithsonian Institution’s Arctic Studies Center, one of many courtesies he has shown to me over the years. John Steinberg, lead investigator on the Skagafjörður Area Settlement Survey, requested I participate and was an enthusiastic and patient teacher with this literary scholar on her first dig, as were the other members of the team. Stephen Loring gave me the trowel that I used on that dig, and also inspired me to believe that archaeology can be a compassionate and insightful means to investigate the past. The project sprung roots in Skagafjörður not only because of the beauty of that landscape, but also because of the people there. They made me feel comfortable and welcome to the valley both during the dig in 2002 and during my solo return trip in 2010. During the latter trip, Gunnar Oddsson of Flatatunga was kind enough to give coffee and conversation to an uninvited guest who had come to take pictures of his farm. The purveyors of Gistiheimili Bakkaflöt were accommodating to my need for extra space to work on my computer at night, and displayed just the right mix of curiosity about my work and respect for my need for quiet. Guðny Zoëga offered support, which I appreciated, as she had also done during the team’s stay in the valley in 2002. The project grew into what it is today starting in 2007, when I returned to Iceland to begin my dissertation research. Funding for 2007-2008 was provided by the American Scandinavian Foundation, and I am honored to be a part of the good work of that organization and their impressive programming. Funding for 2008-2009 was made possible by a Dean’s Normative Time Grant from UC Berkeley’s College of Letters and Sciences. My final year in Iceland was supported by a generous grant from the Leifur Eiríksson Foundation, administered out of the University of Virginia, and I express my gratitude to Karen Torgersen. I also received support from the Scandinavian Department of UC Berkeley, including a Fritz O. Fernstöm Traveling Fellowship, and I would like to thank Linda Rugg and the cheerful administrative staff for their assistance in those matters. The help I received within Iceland was extensive, and sustained this project in more ways than I can properly acknowledge. My extended family in Suðurnesja helped make the transition from California to Iceland easy and brightened my days. I also developed a scholarly family, thanks in large part to the many colleagues at the Árni Magnússon Institute, where I had a desk part of the time. The talks, both scholarly and informal, at that venue and hosted by other scholarly forums in Reykjavík, including the University of Iceland and Reykjavík Academia, broadened my horizons and deepened my understanding. For providing access to maps and encouragement for my project, I thank Árni Daníel Júlíusson. To the staff of the Þjóðdeild of the National Library, who hunted iv down maps and articles for me, I also give my thanks. But I want most of all to express my gratitude to each and every one of the scholars I have met whose names pepper the pages that are to follow and are listed in the bibliography. I trust they will accept this as an acknowledgement both of the personal and intellectual debt this project owes to them. Other scholars I would like to acknowledge are: Joel Berglund, formerly of the Greenland National Archives, who sent me the “Roaring Rocks” article by Goldhahn many years ago; Gunnar Andersson of the Statens Historiska Museet who was an archaeological breath of fresh air during my stay in Iceland; and Cornelius Holtorf and Stephanie Hawke, both of whom gave me valuable feedback during the “People, Places, Stories” conference in Kalmar, Sweden in 2011. Lotta Gavel Adams and Terje Leiren of the University of Washington gave timely and necessary encouragement. Iris Hahn- Santoro assisted with some German linguistic questions. I would like to also thank Jóhanna Katrín Friðriksdóttir, who read through an early draft of Chapter 1, and Unnar Þór Bachmann, who proofread my bibliography, among other things. To all my colleagues at the University of California, Berkeley, I offer my humblest gratitude. It continues to amaze me that I am part of such a dynamic and vibrant institution. For his unwavering wisdom, not only in telling me to pursue my doctorate at Cal, but also for being the most subtle yet effective Doctoral Chair I could imagine, I owe much heartfelt thanks to John Lindow. He has encouraged my interest in all things Icelandic since I first met him as an undergraduate 20 years ago, and my life would not be the same without knowing him. My other committee members were equally amazing: Karin Sanders gave me insightful and inspiring comments, while also providing a compassionate shoulder to lean on through the challenges of balancing PhD studies with real life. Meg Conkey of the Anthropology Department did me the honor of serving as the outside committee member for this project with unwavering enthusiasm, even as it morphed from dealing with native rock to one focused on an enigmatic and virtually unknown saga. My thanks also to Carol Clover, Jonas Wellendorf, and Mark Sandberg, who gave me feedback on specific points in the dissertation, and from whom I learned much. My fellow graduate students in the department, especially Amanda Doxtater, kept me motivated. Finally, however, this dissertation would have never borne fruit without the support of my family. My parents and my siblings were my greatest cheerleaders, and I am grateful for their unconditional love. David Hightower shouldered an unfair portion of the parenting responsibilities with more grace and goodwill than I could have asked for. My son Palmer, who was born and grew up in the midst of this dissertation project, is the person that kept me grounded and sane through all the travels back and forth, and my gratitude for his delightful and resilient personality is profound. Thank you all. v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Skagafjörður from Arnastapi Photo by Elisabeth I. Ward p. 57 Figure 2: Map of skirmishes in Þsh Made by E. Ward using Google Earth software p. 86 Figure 3: Map of named farmsteads Made by E. Ward using Google Earth software p. 90 Figure 4: Map of Örlygsstaðir battle By permission of Árni Daníel Júlíuson p. 95 Figure 5: Map of battles vs. farmnames Made by E. Ward using Google Earth software p. 100 Figure 6: Memorial of church at Ás Photo by Elisabeth I. Ward p. 115 Figure 7: Three Brothers Memorial Photo by Elisabeth I. Ward p. 116 Figure 8: Örlygsstaðir battle marker Photo by Elisabeth I. Ward p. 117 Figure 9: Placard at Örlygsstaðir Photo by Elisabeth I.