Mindfulness DOI 10.1007/s12671-016-0629-2 ORIGINAL PAPER Angry Rumination Mediates the Unique Associations Between Self-Compassion and Anger and Aggression Amanda Fresnics1 & Ashley Borders1 # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 Abstract Mindfulness is known to decrease anger and ag- be useful for developing clinical interventions targeting anger gression. Self-compassion is a related and relatively new con- and aggressive behavior. struct that may predict other clinical outcomes more strongly than does mindfulness. Little research has focused on whether Keywords Self-compassion . Mindfulness . Angry self-compassion is related to anger and aggression, and no rumination . Anger . Aggression studies have explored mechanisms of these associations. The current survey study explores whether angry rumination me- diates the unique associations between self-compassion and Introduction anger and aggression, controlling for trait mindfulness. Two hundred and one undergraduates completed questionnaires Mindfulness has known benefits for individuals with anger and assessing self-compassion, mindfulness, angry rumination, aggression problems (Heppner et al. 2008). Self-compassion is and recent anger and aggression. Supporting our hypotheses, a related construct that has received recent empirical attention angry rumination mediated the associations between self- because of its potential to reduce suffering. This positive attri- compassion—particularly its over-identification subscale— bute consists of extending a loving, non-judgmental attitude and anger and aggression when controlling for mindfulness. towards oneself in the face of failure, rejection, or pain (Neff Mindfulness did not predict angry rumination, recent anger, or 2003). Self-compassion contributes to better processing of aggression when controlling for self-compassion. negative emotions (Leary et al. 2007) and is associated with Furthermore, multiple regression analyses predicting less self-criticism, depression, depressive rumination, and anx- aggression-related variables indicated that angry rumination iety (Barnard and Curry 2011; Neff 2003). Moreover, some uniquely predicted over-identification, one of the six self- research suggests that self-compassion may be a stronger pre- compassion subscales. These findings suggest that self-com- dictor of these outcomes than is mindfulness (e.g., Van Dam passion, particularly a lack of cognitive and emotion fusion, et al. 2011;Woodruffetal.2014). Whereas most of the self- may be a more proximal predictor of clinical outcomes than compassion literature focuses on internalizing symptoms, we mindfulness. Implications for current conceptualizations and know much less about its association with externalizing prob- measures of mindfulness are discussed. Self-compassion may lems. A better understanding of the unique effects and mech- anisms of self-compassion on anger and aggression could sug- gest potential directions for clinical interventions targeting ex- ternalizing symptoms. * Ashley Borders Self-compassion is a way of relating to oneself when suf- [email protected] fering. Individuals who are self-compassionate (a) treat them- Amanda Fresnics selves with kindness, (b) understand that suffering is a com- [email protected] mon human experience, and (c) are able to hold painful thoughts and emotions in balanced awareness (Neff 2003). 1 Psychology Department, The College of New Jersey, 2000 As commonly measured, each of these three facets of self- Pennington Rd, PO Box 7718, Ewing, NJ 08628, USA compassion is assessed by two opposing subscales (Neff Mindfulness 2003). For instance, (a1) self-kindness, or self-soothing and equally strong predictors (Baer et al. 2012). It is therefore useful self-comforting when facing pain, contrasts with (a2) self- to examine the unique effect of self-compassion on externaliz- judgment, or harsh condemnation and self-blame. Similarly, ing behaviors, controlling for mindfulness, in order to to sepa- (b1) common humanity assesses an understanding that pain rate the effects of the two constructs. Furthermore, because self- and suffering are shared human experiences, whereas (b2) compassion can be analyzed as both a general factor and by its isolation assesses the belief that individuals are unique in their components (Neff 2016;Neffetal.in press), exploring the suffering. The third pair of opposing subscales are called (c1) unique effects of the six subscales of self-compassion may mindfulness and (c2) over-identification. Neff (2003)de- provide additional understanding of which component(s) con- scribes mindfulness as an attitude of equanimity towards un- tribute the most to externalizing problems. pleasant thoughts and emotions, contributing to a state of Research has already shown that mindfulness is associated mental balance. By contrast, over-identification involves fix- with less anger and aggression. Cross-sectional analyses ation or fusion with one’s internal experiences. found that dispositional mindfulness was associated with less Of course, mindfulness has received substantial attention as aggression and hostile attributions (Heppner et al. 2008). In an its own construct. Researchers generally define it as a unique experimental follow-up, participants who received a mindful- way of paying attention (Bishop et al. 2004; Shapiro et al. 2006). ness induction prior to social rejection responded with less Mindfulness involves bringing one’s full attention to the present aggressive behavior than did participants who only received moment, so that individuals are aware of their moment-to- social rejection (Heppner et al. 2008). In addition, moment internal and external experiences. Furthermore, mindful mindfulness-based interventions led to decreases in hostility individuals intentionally approach their experiences with an at- and anger in prison inmates, cancer patients, and health-care titude of acceptance, curiosity, and non-judgment. Clearly, self- professionals (Galantino et al. 2005; Samuelson et al. 2007; compassion and mindfulness are related constructs, in that they Speca et al. 2000). Researchers have also examined possible both promote experiencing discomfort with an accepting attitude mechanisms between mindfulness and aggression. Past cross- (Neff and Dahm 2014). Not surprisingly, self-compassion and sectional studies found that both general and angry rumination mindfulness measures share between 13 and 48 % of their var- mediated the associations between mindfulness and hostility, iance (e.g., Baer et al. 2006;Neff2003). Moreover, self- anger, and aggression (Borders et al. 2010;Petersetal.2015). compassion interventions increase mindfulness (Neff and Therefore, evidence suggests that mindfulness is associated Germer 2013;Smeetsetal.2014), and mindfulness interven- with aggression-related variables, possibly via a mechanism tions increase self-compassion (Baer 2010; Shapiro et al. 2007). of rumination. However, none of these studies included mea- However, theory and empirical evidence suggest that self- sures of self-compassion, so the unique effect of mindfulness compassion and mindfulness are distinct constructs. versus self-compassion could not be examined. It is possible Mindfulness is best conceptualized as a form of attention reg- that both mindfulness and self-compassion uniquely contrib- ulation and therefore applies to all experiences, whether posi- ute to less anger and aggression. Alternatively, one may tive, negative, or neutral (Neff and Dahm 2014). Not all expe- emerge as the stronger predictor of these particular outcomes. riences that one is mindful of require self-compassion. A few studies have explored whether self-compassion is Conversely, self-compassion is at root an attitude towards suf- associated with anger and aggression. For instance, self- fering, rather than a type of attention (Neff and Dahm 2014). compassion was associated with fewer angry responses to Thus, the mindfulness component of self-compassion, and its hypothetical situations (Neff and Vonk 2009). Similarly, opposing subscale over-identification, differs from the general self-compassion predicted less anger when recalling emo- construct of mindfulness in that it specifically relates to person- tionally upsetting sports situations in female athletes (Reis al suffering rather than general awareness of all experiences. In et al. 2015). In terms of aggression, men and women who addition to mindfulness of suffering, self-compassion also en- lacked self-compassion reported being more verbally ag- compasses an individual’s emotional response (self-kindness gressive towards their romantic partners (Neff and vs. self-judgment) and perspective on suffering (common hu- Beretvas 2013). Self-compassion was also associated with manity vs. isolation). Empirically, self-compassion and mind- less dispositional proactive and reactive aggression in at- fulness account for unique variance in well-being (Baer et al. risk adolescent males (Barry et al. 2015). When analyzing 2012;VanDametal.2011), suggesting that they are not iden- self-compassion subscales separately, self-kindness tical constructs. Researchers have also started to compare their uniquely predicted less proactive aggression, whereas iso- relative predictive strength. Self-compassion was a better pre- lation and over-identification uniquely predicted more re- dictor than mindfulness of depression, anxiety, and quality of active aggression (Barry et al. 2015). Thus, four previous life in both clinical and non-clinical samples (Van Dam et al.