An Alternative Framework of Analysis to Investigate China’s Confucius Institutes: A Great Leap Outward with Chinese Characteristics? By Xin Liu A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Central Lancashire July 2017 Abstract This thesis examines China’s contemporary global cultural footprints through its recent development of cultural diplomacy and its global expansion of the Confucius Institute, whose prominent features are investigated by exploring the four specific research questions of ‘why’ China wants to launch cultural diplomacy and the CI, ‘what’ is the vehicle, ‘who’ is the agent, and ‘how’ it is carried out in the field. The thesis challenges the adequacy of the mainstream concepts of ‘soft power’ and ‘nation branding’ that are most commonly cited in the current literature, and argued for an alternative analytical framework that goes beyond and beneath these Western-defined concepts. After deciphering the multiple contexts, Gramsci’s concepts of cultural hegemony and ideology and Said’s critique of Orientalism are adopted to frame a different understanding of the historical and international contexts, while the double-edged role played by nationalism is analysed to deepen our understanding of the domestic context. The proposed new perspectives are then applied to chart the global cultural terrain of struggle, where the cultural encounters in the shifting global power relations between China’s long-held image as the “cultural other” and the ‘ideological other’ and its self- representations are examined. A comparative case study of the CIs, one of the most visible and controversial manifestations of China’s cultural diplomacy, is carried out to answer the main research question of why China’s similar efforts in promoting its culture were perceived and received differently to other Western countries and encountered unexpected controversies. The answers outline the unique challenges faced by China’s cultural diplomacy in both the cultural encounters and the interactions between its internal articulations and external communications. Primary data were collected from 25 interviews with staff from nine CIs in five different countries and one Goethe Institute in Beijing. The dynamics between these interweaving contexts elaborate the complexity of China’s cultural diplomacy and the CI project, whose prominent features are presented as the major research findings of this thesis, while what will make it a truly ‘great leap outward’ is also discussed. i Table of Contents Introduction 1 0.1 Background and the contexts 1 0.2 What is in a title? 6 0.3 Overview of the thesis 7 Chapter One Literature Review 10 1.0 Introduction 10 1.1 What is cultural diplomacy and its purpose? 11 1.1.1 Unpacking the key concepts of cultural diplomacy 11 1.1.2 Understanding the international context: soft power and image building, or power struggle for cultural hegemony? 14 i) Soft power 14 ii) Nation branding 19 iii) Cultural hegemony, power relations, and Orientalism 26 1.1.3 Understanding the domestic context: nationalism and national identity 30 1.2 Vehicle of cultural diplomacy: a theoretical discussion 37 1.2.1 The two ‘wheels’ of the vehicle 37 1.2.2 Political values: universalism vs. relativism 41 1.3 Agent of cultural diplomacy – an ongoing debate 43 1.3.1 The international debate on the agent of cultural diplomacy 44 1.3.2 The domestic debate on the agent of cultural diplomacy 45 1.4 New ideas for the new strategy in practice 50 ii 1.5 The Confucius Institute: its relevance to showcase cultural diplomacy with Chinese characteristics 52 1.5.1 Controversy in its name and intension 53 1.5.2 Controversy in its operating model 57 1.6 Conclusion 60 Chapter Two Research Methodology and Research Design 62 2.0 Introduction 62 2.1 Philosophical assumptions and research paradigms 62 2.2 Research design for this thesis 65 2.2.1 Methodological triangulation 66 i) Multiple comparative case studies 66 ii) Case selection process 68 2.2.2 Data triangulation 71 i) Documents, reports and agreements 71 ii) Observation 72 iii) Interview 74 2.2.3 Investigator triangulation 77 2.2.4 Theoretical triangulation 77 2.3 Approach to data analysis 79 2.4 Originality of this research 82 2.5 Conclusion 83 Chapter Three Charting the Terrain of Struggle for China’s Cultural Diplomacy and the Confucius Institute 84 iii 3.0 Introduction 84 3.1 Overview: some key concepts and the roadmap 84 3.2 Step one: Framing the broader context in which the terrain of struggle sets 85 3.3 Step two: Giving a full representation of various actors from different positions at play in this terrain 89 3.3.1 Chinese government and Hanban 89 3.3.2 The CI directors and staff, a joint force of host and home institutions 93 3.3.3 China-related scholars (both working with the CI and those refusing to work with the CI 95 3.3.4 The media (both from China and the host country) 98 3.3.5 The general public in host countries including students of the CI 103 3.4 Step three: Charting the terrain into hegemonic and counter-hegemonic sides by employing the key concepts 106 3.5 Step four: Examining the dynamic interactions among various players in the cultural terrain of struggle 110 3.5.1 Snapshot 1: Chinese government Hanban the CI China- related Scholars media Chinese government 110 3.5.2 Snapshot 2: Hanban home institution of the CI host institution of the CI Hanban 118 3.6 Conclusion 123 Chapter Four So Similar, So Different, So Chinese, Analytical Comparisons of the Confucius Institute with Its Western Counterparts 125 4.0 Introduction 125 4.1 Purposes 125 4.1.1 Similarities and differences 125 4.1.2 Why is the CI’s purpose perceived differently? 128 iv 4.2 Operating Models 131 4.2.1 Chinese rationale behind choosing the model 131 4.2.2 Endogenous constraints of the CI’s operating model 134 4.2.3 Exogenous constraints of the CI’s operating model 139 4.2.4 Flexibility and responsiveness of the CI’s operating model 142 4.3 Provisions 145 4.3.1 Cultural activities, the ‘what’ and ‘how’ 145 4.3.2 Research, an element unique to the CI’s model 147 4.4 To be, or not to be - A Tale of the CIUC Closure 150 4.4.1 The ‘Trilogy’: three key documents and their subtexts 152 i) The Chicago University petition 152 ii) The AAUP report 155 iii) The Chicago University statement 156 4.5 Conclusion 158 Chapter Five 161 Prominent Features of China’s cultural diplomacy and the Confucius Institute 5.0 Introduction 161 5.1 Comparing and contrasting the terrain marked by soft and hard cultural boundaries 5.1.1 One mission statement, two different priorities 162 5.1.2 The different ‘wheel’ focus in left-driving and right-driving countries 166 5.1.3 See China and Read China: first-hand knowledge vs. third-hand stories 168 5.1.4 Soft cultural boundary and hard nationalism boundary 173 5.2 Prominent features of China’s cultural diplomacy and the CI 177 v 5.3 Conclusion 179 Conclusion 180 6.0. Overview 180 6.1 Summary of the key findings 181 6.2 Implications of the prominent features on the practice of China’s cultural diplomacy and the Confucius Institute 185 6.2.1 Purpose: understanding the target audience better 185 6.2.2 Vehicle - promoting Chinese culture as an internalising process rather than an uniform product 186 6.2.3 Agent - Playing down the roles and presence of the government 187 6.2.4 Implementation – involving both partners equally as stakeholders 189 6.3 The road forward: some open issues 191 Bibliography 194 Appendices 224 Appendix 1 Quantity, Distribution and Annual Growth of the CIs all over the world 224 Appendix 2 Eight-Year CI Development Plan 2012-2020 225 Appendix 3 Methods of Evaluating a Model CI in Europe 232 Appendix 4 University of Chicago Petition to the Committee of the Council 239 Appendix 5 the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) report 241 On Partnerships with Foreign Governments: The Case of Confucius Institutes Appendix 6 Statement on the Confucius Institute at the University of Chicago 242 Appendix 7 Four agreements between Confucius Institute Headquarters of China and XXX University on the Establishment of CIs 243 Appendix 8 Information Sheet and Consent Form 266 Appendix 9 Interview Questions 272 Appendix 10 Interviewee Information Grid 278 Appendix 11 Implementation Plan for the Confucius Institute Head Teacher Position280 Appendix 12 CI Conference Program and Executive Training Program 284 vi List of Abbreviations AAUP: American Association of University Professors CAUT: Canadian Association of University Teachers CCC: China Cultural Centre CCKF: Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation CCP: Chinese Communist Party CI: Confucius Institute CIUC: Confucius Institute at the University of Chicago CPDA: China Public Diplomacy Association ECAS: European Association of Chinese Studies GI: Goethe Institute Hanban: Office of Chinese Language Council International IIE: Institute for International Education MOE: Ministry of Education SK: South Korea UK: United Kingdom USCC: U.S-China Economic and Security Review Commission vii List of tables and illustrations Table 1.1 Favourable and unfavourable perceptions of China Source: Gallup, 2016 21 Table 1.2 Views of China, created by combing data from the following two sources: Sources: data from 2002-2012 were available from: http://www.pewglobal.org/files/2012/06/Pew-Global-Attitudes-U.S.-Image-Report- FINAL-June-13-2012.pdf (p42), data from 2013- 2016 were available from http://www.pewglobal.org/database/indicator/24/ 22 Figure 1.3 The Nation Brands Hexagon source: Nation