Invisible Weapons s INVISIBLE WEAPONS Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology s M. Cecilia Gaposchkin Cornell University Press ithaca and london Copyright © 2017 by Cornell University All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850. First published 2017 by Cornell University Press Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Gaposchkin, M. Cecilia (Marianne Cecilia), 1970– author. Title: Invisible weapons : liturgy and the making of crusade ideology / M. Cecilia Gaposchkin. Description: Ithaca : Cornell University Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016031349 (print) | LCCN 2016032343 (ebook) | ISBN 9781501705151 (cloth : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781501707971 (epub/mobi) | ISBN 9781501707988 (pdf) Subjects: LCSH: Catholic Church—Liturgy—History—Middle Ages, 600–1500. | Catholic Church—Liturgy—Texts—History and criticism. | Crusades. | War— Religious aspects—Catholic Church—History of doctrines. Classification: LCC BX1973 .G37 2017 (print) | LCC BX1973 (ebook) | DDC 264/.0200902—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016031349 Cornell University Press strives to use environmentally responsible suppliers and materials to the fullest extent possible in the publishing of its books. Such materials include vegetable-based, low-VOC inks and acid-free papers that are recycled, totally chlorine-free, or partly composed of nonwood fibers. For further information, visit our website at www.cornellpress.cornell.edu. Cover photograph (front and back): Altar cross from the treasury of the Domkammer of St. Paul’s Cathedral, Münster, ca. 1090. © Stephan Kube, Greven. Author photograph by Jon Fox Gilbert. For Mum and Dad Contents s List of Illustrations and Maps xi Acknowledgments xiii Abbreviations and Citation Conventions xvii Introduction 1 Crusading and the Liturgy 4 Premises and Parameters 7 Plan of Inquiry 12 Preliminaries 16 Crusading to the Levant, 1095–1500 16 The Liturgy and Its Books 22 1 The Militant Eschatology of the Liturgy and the Origins of Crusade Ideology 29 The Image of Jerusalem in the Western Liturgy 31 The Liturgy of Pilgrimage 35 The Liturgy of War 41 The Liturgy of the Cross 53 2 From Pilgrimage to Crusade 65 Pilgrims on Crusade 67 The Centrality of the Cross 72 The Rite Coalesces 77 Old Texts, New Meanings 79 Local Innovations 81 Crusade and Pilgrimage in the Papal Rite 87 viii Contents 3 On the March 93 The First Crusade 97 The Liturgy of Battle 99 Processions 110 Crusading after the First Crusade 122 4 Celebrating the Capture of Jerusalem in the Holy City 130 The Latin Rite in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 132 The “Festivitas Ierusalem” Commemorating the Capture of the City (July 15) 137 Themes of Liberation and Salvation in the Mass and the Office 141 Prophecy and Fulfillment 148 The Rededication of the Holy Sepulcher in 1149 156 After 1187 162 5 Echoes of Victory in the West 165 Liturgical Commemoration and Calendars 167 Liturgy and Sacred Song 179 6 Clamoring to God: Liturgy as a Weapon of War 192 Begging Forgiveness and Clamoring for Help 195 Innocent III 201 The Theology of Failure and the Power of Prayer 208 Institutionalization and Response 219 “Whensoever It Might Happen that Someone Celebrates the Office of the Mass” 222 7 Praying against the Turks 226 The Ottoman Advance 229 Institutional Considerations 232 New Efforts 237 The Argument of the Liturgy 244 The Devotional Use of Old Testament Narrative 248 Conclusion 256 Appendices 1. The Liturgy of the 15 July Commemoration 263 2. Comparative Development of the Clamor 289 3. Timeline of Nonliturgical Evidence for Liturgical Supplications 309 Contents ix Selected Bibliography 325 Manuscripts Cited 325 Printed Source Material 326 Studies 328 Index 339 Illustrations and Maps s Illustrations 1.1. Blessing of swords, from a fourteenth-century copy of the pontifical of William Durandus. 50 1.2. Cross of victory. From Münster, ca. 1090. 54 1.3. Reliquary Crucifix, 1125–1175, showing Christ suffering. Spain, ca. 1125–1175. 54 2.1. Blessing and bestowal of the cross, from a late fourteenth-century copy of the pontifical ofWilliam Durandus. 76 2.2. Philip Augustus and Henry II take the cross, from a fourteenth-century copy of the Grandes Chroniques of France. 76 2.3. Blessing of the cross, from a thirteenth-century pontifical from Beauvais. 77 3.1. Blessing of the war standard, from a fourteenth-century copy of the pontifical ofWilliam Durandus. 103 3.2. The blessing and the giving of the cross for those going in aid of the Holy Land, from a fifteenth-century copy of the pontifical of William Durandus. 103 3.3. Moralization of 1 Kings 5:3–5, showing the Church wielding a war banner with a cross, trampling the devil beneath her feet. From the Oxford moralized bible, ca. 1235. 104 3.4. Penitential processions performed before the Battle of Antioch. From an illustrated history of William of Tyre. 116 3.5. The Frankish army leaves the city to fight the Battle of Antioch. From an illustrated history of William of Tyre. 117 6.1. Moralization of Exodus 17:11, showing a priest at an altar fighting vices with prayer. From the Oxford moralized bible, ca. 1235. 212 6.2. Moralization of Exodus 17.08, showing the fight against the devil, from the Vienna moralized bible, ca. 1220. 213 xii Illustrations and Maps 6.3. Moralization of Exodus 17.11, showing a priest performing the mass, from the Vienna moralized bible, ca. 1220. 215 6.4. Moralization of Exodus 17.11, showing angels defeating vices just as Israelites defeated Amalekites, from the Vienna moralized bible, ca. 1220. 216 7.1. Blessing of the crusader’s cross, from the first printed edition of the Roman Pontifical (1595). 231 Maps 1. Places of calendrical, liturgical, or paraliturgical commemoration of 15 July. 171 2. Localizable dedicated war masses (fourteenth–sixteen centuries). 245 Acknowledgments s The debts accrued in writing this book are wholly disproportionate to its value, and I can only begin to repay them by acknowledging them here and thanking those who made them for the support that was given to me throughout. In the earliest stages William Chester Jordan, Teofilo Ruiz, and Thomas Madden wrote in support of grant applications that in turn gave me the time to write this book. These resulted in a semester as Shelby Cullom Davis fellow in the History Department at Princeton that allowed for the early stages of research and writing, and then a fellowship from the National Endowment for the Humanities that gave me a year off to finish drafting the manuscript. I thus owe these foundations and my recommend- ers for the extraordinary and enriching opportunities of time and environs to nourish this project. At Princeton, I owe particular thanks to William Chester Jordan, chair of the History Department, and Dan Rogers, who was at the time director of the Davis Center and who provided the warm and collegial atmosphere in which I began to sketch out my ideas for this book. I am also grateful to the Nelson A. Rockefeller Center for Public Policy and the Social Sciences and the Leslie Center for the Humanities at Dartmouth College for travel grants allowing research in European collec- tions in 2011 and 2012, and to Dartmouth for supporting my research and permitting me leave time. In the process of research and writing I have collected countless debts. Among scholars who read and commented on individual chapters are Am- non Linder, Iris Shagrir, Sebastián Salvadó, Christoph Maier, Norman Housley, Nicholas Paul, Jessalynn Bird, David Perry, Megan Cassidy-Welch, Alexa Sand, Carl Estabrook, Katherine Allen-Smith, Stan Metheny, and John Wickstrom. Amnon Linder, Christoph Maier, Sebastián Salvadó, Iris Shagrir, Philippe Buc, and Jessalynn Bird have all also shared with me their xiv Acknowledgments own unpublished research, digital reproductions of critical manuscripts, or unpublished writings. I owe a special debt to Stan Metheny, one of my greatest intellectual resources, who has for years been willing to discuss the medieval liturgy with me and has offered no end of help. At an interme- diary stage, having finished a full draft, a number of colleagues and friends read and commented on the entire manuscript, including Tom Madden, whose enthusiasm for the project from the very beginning gave me the con- fidence to take it on, and Sebastián Salvadó, whom I came to know in the course of this project and who has been a generous interlocutor at every stage. Both read the manuscript in draft and helped me identify areas of strength and weakness. The manuscript was substantially revised after the manuscript review, sponsored by the John Sloan Dickey Center for Interna- tional Understanding at Dartmouth. To those who participated in the re- view, including Paul Cobb, Andrea Tarnowski, Kevin Reinhart, Christopher MacEvitt, Sean Field, George Dameron, and especially Christoph Maier and Louis Hamilton, who both came from some distance to do so, I offer particular thanks. It is an act of no little intellectual generosity to spend time reading someone else’s unpolished, unfinished work with a view to helping her improve it. I also thank Peter Potter, my editor at Cornell Uni- versity Press, for his interest in the book and his willingness to see it through with me. To Jay Rubenstein and William Purkis I also owe great thanks for insights into a late draft. Throughout, Jay Rubenstein has gen- erously and patiently engaged with me on large and small points of inter- pretation. Aurora McClain helped me finalize a penultimate draft. I am grateful to all.