Department of Linguistics Faculty of Human Sciences Social Reproduction and Migrant Education: A Critical Sociolinguistic Ethnography of Burmese Students’ Learning Experiences at a Border High School in China By Jia Li (李佳) This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy November 2016 i Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................ viii Statement of Candidate ................................................................................................... x Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... xi List of Figures .............................................................................................................. xvi List of Tables .............................................................................................................. xvii List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ........................................................................xviii Glossary of Burmese and Chinese terms ..................................................................... xix Chapter One: Introduction .............................................................................................. 1 1.1 Research problem ................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Introducing the research context at the China-and-Myanmar border ................... 4 1.3 China’s rise and Chinese language promotion ..................................................... 9 1.4 Migrant education and social reproduction ........................................................ 15 1.5 Thesis outline ...................................................................................................... 16 Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................. 20 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 20 2.2 Educational barriers experienced by migrant students ....................................... 20 2.2.1 Language proficiency ................................................................................... 21 2.2.2 Language variation ....................................................................................... 22 2.2.3 Prior education ............................................................................................. 25 2.2.4 Family socioeconomic status ....................................................................... 27 2.3 Educational policies affecting migrant students ................................................. 29 2.3.1 Language development programs ................................................................ 29 2.3.2 Streaming policies ........................................................................................ 33 2.3.3 Standardised assessment .............................................................................. 37 ii 2.4 Teaching practices aimed at migrant students .................................................... 41 2.4.1 Classroom climate ........................................................................................ 42 2.4.2 Student-teacher interactions ......................................................................... 44 2.4.3 Teacher training and preparation ................................................................. 48 2.5 Migrant students as agents .................................................................................. 54 2.5.1 Experiences of exclusion from peer groups ................................................. 54 2.5.2 Acts of resistance ......................................................................................... 58 2.5.3 Reproduction of linguistic and racial hierarchies ........................................ 63 2.6 Summary ............................................................................................................. 66 Chapter Three: Methodology ....................................................................................... 70 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 70 3.2 Approach: a critical sociolinguistic ethnography ............................................... 71 3.3 Data collection .................................................................................................... 72 3.3.1 Selection of fieldwork site and border high school...................................... 73 3.3.2 Burmese Participants .................................................................................... 75 3.3.3 Data collection procedures ........................................................................... 78 3.3.4 Researcher positionality ............................................................................... 87 3.4 Data treatment ................................................................................................. 91 3.5 Data analysis ....................................................................................................... 94 3.5.1 Content analysis ........................................................................................... 94 3.5.2 Narrative analysis ......................................................................................... 95 3.5.3 Multimodal discourse analysis ..................................................................... 95 3.5.4 Positioning analysis ...................................................................................... 96 3.5.5 Interaction analysis ....................................................................................... 97 3.6 Summary and limitations .................................................................................... 97 iii Chapter Four Previous educational experiences......................................................... 100 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 100 4.2 State-run schools in Myanmar .......................................................................... 100 4.2.1 The education system ................................................................................. 100 4.2.2 Participants’ experiences ............................................................................ 107 4.2.3 Summary .................................................................................................... 120 4.3 Chinese supplementary schools in Myanmar ................................................... 121 4.3.1 Overview of Chinese supplementary schooling......................................... 121 4.3.2 Participants’ experiences at Chinese schools ............................................. 128 4.3.3 Summary .................................................................................................... 135 4.4 Informal language learning and educational experiences ................................. 136 4.4.1 Family interaction ...................................................................................... 136 4.4.2 Community engagement ............................................................................ 139 4.4.3 Social media ............................................................................................... 141 4.4.4 Summary .................................................................................................... 144 4.5 Primary border education in China ................................................................... 144 4.5.1 Border education agreement ...................................................................... 144 4.5.2 Participants’ experiences ............................................................................ 148 4.5.3 Summary .................................................................................................... 153 4.6 Conclusion: Chinese for empowerment in a China-oriented world ................. 153 Chapter Five: School practices ................................................................................... 158 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 158 5.2 Becoming a model school ................................................................................. 158 5.3 BHS’s educational vision .................................................................................. 166 5.3.1 Chinese high school education ................................................................... 166 iv 5.3.2 BHS under the competition mechanism ..................................................... 167 5.3.3 Negotiating BHS’s visibility as a model school ........................................ 168 5.3.4 Summary .................................................................................................... 171 5.4 Management of school diversity ....................................................................... 172 5.4.1 Boarding policy and students’ family background .................................... 172 5.4.2 Military-style daily regulations and routines ............................................. 173 5.4.3 Gaokao-centred education ......................................................................... 180 5.4.4 Physical segregation ................................................................................... 184 5.4.5