23 Jul 2003 20:28 AR AR194-AA41-11.tex AR194-AA41-11.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: GCE 10.1146/annurev.astro.41.071601.170049 Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 2003. 41:429–63 doi: 10.1146/annurev.astro.41.071601.170049 Copyright c 2003 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved First published online as a Review in Advance on June 4, 2003 EVOLUTION OF A HABITABLE PLANET James F. Kasting1 and David Catling2 1Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802; email: [email protected] 2Department of Atmospheric Sciences and Astrobiology Program, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1640; email: [email protected] Key Words climate history, habitable zones, planetary volatiles, rise of atmospheric oxygen, biosignature gases ■ Abstract Giant planets have now been discovered around other stars, and it is only a matter of time until Earth-sized planets are detected. Whether any of these planets are suitable for life depends on their volatile abundances, especially water, and on their climates. Only planets within the liquid-water habitable zone (HZ) can support life on their surfaces and, thus, can be analyzed remotely to determine whether they are inhabited. Fortunately, current models predict that HZs are relatively wide around main-sequence stars not too different from our sun. This conclusion is based on studies of how our own planet has evolved over time. Earth’s climate has remained conducive to life for the past 3.5 billion years or more, despite a large increase in solar luminosity, probably because of previous higher concentrations of CO2 and/or CH4. Both these gases are involved in negative feedback loops that help to stabilize the climate. In addition to these topics, we also briefly discuss the rise of atmospheric O2 and O3, along with their possible significance as indicators of life on other planets. 1. INTRODUCTION The evolution of Earth’s atmosphere and climate has long been the domain of geo- scientists and biologists. Geoscientists are interested in understanding the history of the solid planet as well as its atmosphere and ocean. Biologists are interested Access provided by University of Chicago Libraries on 04/04/18. For personal use only. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 2003.41:429-463. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org in understanding biological evolution and how that may have been influenced by interactions with the environment. Prebiotic chemists are involved with these is- sues as well because they want to understand the conditions under which life may have originated. Astronomers now have reason to take an interest in this topic because they hope to be able to observe Earth-sized planets around other stars within the next two decades. Only giant planets—approximately 100 of them to date—have been detected, all by the radial-velocity technique (Butler 2003, Marcy & Butler 1998). One planet, HD 209458, has also been photometrically monitored in transit across its parent star (Charbonneau et al. 2000). Future space missions, and perhaps ground-based observers as well, have the potential of finding Earth-sized planets. 0066-4146/03/0922-0429$14.00 429 23 Jul 2003 20:28 AR AR194-AA41-11.tex AR194-AA41-11.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: GCE 430 KASTING CATLING NASA’s Kepler mission, scheduled to launch in 2006, will look for planetary transits across approximately 50,000 stars in a patch of the Milky Way (Borucki et al. 2003). In the somewhat more distant future, NASA’s proposed Terrestrial Planet Finder mission (Beichman, Woolf & Lindensmith 1999), or the European Space Agency’s (ESA’s) proposed Darwin mission (L´eger 2000, Selsis, Despois & Parisot 2002), will attempt to observe planets directly at either visible/near- infrared (IR) or thermal-IR wavelengths and, at the same time, obtain spectra of their atmospheres. With luck, we will learn not only whether other habitable worlds exist but also whether any of them are actually inhabited. It therefore behooves us to consider what it takes to create and maintain a habitable world and to consider how one might look for evidence of life on such a planet. We should note that not everyone agrees as to what constitutes a habitable world. We concern ourselves here with the traditional definition (Dole 1964; Hart 1978, 1979): A habitable planet is one on which liquid water is stable at the surface. This definition presupposes that, like life on Earth, alien life will be carbon-based and will require liquid water. Some scientists (e.g., Hoyle 1957) have speculated that life may be a more general phenomenon and that carbon and water are not needed. This idea is indeed conceivable, but it lends itself better to science fiction than to concrete development. Many more researchers would argue that life is possible on planets (or moons) with subsurface liquid water. Mars and Europa in our own solar system are two obvious candidates, and NASA has missions in the planning stages to find out if they are inhabited. However, the search for life on such bodies can only be carried out in situ because any life that may be present does not modify the planet’s atmosphere in a detectable way. In contrast, investigators can search spectroscopically for biogenic gases in the atmosphere of a planet that is habitable in the traditional sense. Hence, this traditional definition of habitability is useful to researchers looking for life on planets around other stars. 2. FORMATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND OCEANS We begin by briefly discussing the formation of Earth’s atmosphere and oceans and, in passing, the formation of the Earth/Moon system. Entire books have been Access provided by University of Chicago Libraries on 04/04/18. For personal use only. devoted to this latter subject (Canup & Righter 2000, Hartmann, Phillips & Taylor Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 2003.41:429-463. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org 1986, Newsom & Jones 1990), so we do no more than scratch the surface of this topic. Our goal in this section is to establish boundary conditions for the subsequent evolution of the atmosphere and for the origin of life. 2.1. Formation of Earth and the Moon Radiometric (207Pb/206Pb) age dating shows that Earth is approximately the same age as primitive chondritic meteorites, 4.56 0.01 Ga. (We use geologists’ pre- ferred time notation as it is less cumbersome than other units. Ga stands for giga- annum or billions of years ago.) Theoretical models of planetary accretion (Canup 23 Jul 2003 20:28 AR AR194-AA41-11.tex AR194-AA41-11.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: GCE EVOLUTION OF A HABITABLE PLANET 431 & Agnor 2000, Chambers & Wetherill 1998, Petit, Morbidelli & Valsecchi 1999, Safronov 1969, Wetherill 1985) suggest that the planets in the inner solar sys- tem formed on a timescale of 107–108 years. Hence, most of the action was over by 4.5 Ga. During this initial period, growing Earth accreted numerous bodies that were the size of the Moon or larger (Wetherill 1985). Given that the Moon is approximately one eightieth of Earth’s mass, these impacts were exceedingly violent: They would have vaporized any ocean that was present and melted part or all of Earth’s surface (Zahnle & Sleep 1997). The largest collisions, such as the Mars-sized impact that is thought to have formed the Moon (Cameron 2000, Hartmann et al. 1986), may have driven off the atmosphere and ocean entirely— although no one has demonstrated this—and created a magma ocean with a depth of 1000 km (Righter & Drake 1997). The oldest Moon rocks are dated at 4.44 Ga, so this singular event occurred very early in Earth’s history. Radiometric dat- ing using isotopes of Lu and Hf suggests that the Moon-forming impact occurred within 30 million years of solar-system formation (Halliday, Lee & Jacobsen 2000, Halliday et al. 2001). Moon rocks also indicate that large, 100 km diameter bod- ies continued to pelt both Earth and Moon until approximately 3.8 Ga (Sleep et al. 1989). This bombardment took place throughout the inner solar system, as evidenced by the large number of craters on Mercury and Mars. This turbulent first 700 million years of Earth’s history is referred to as the heavy-bombardment period. The modern concept of the formation of Earth by large impacts stands in stark contrast to earlier theories, in which Earth was thought to have formed relatively slowly by the accumulation of many small bodies. The modern theory has several implications that are important for planetary habitability. First, the occurrence of large impacts should have ensured that Earth’s iron core formed at the same time as did the planet (Stevenson 1983). Indeed, hafnium-isotope evidence suggests that Earth’s core formed less than 30 million years after the formation of the solar system (Yin et al. 2002). In some early models of atmospheric evolution (e.g., Holland 1962), core formation was delayed for up to half a billion years until Earth’s interior was sufficiently heated by radioactive decay to allow melting to occur. In Holland’s model, metallic iron remained present in the upper mantle throughout this time, implying that volcanic gases would have been much more Access provided by University of Chicago Libraries on 04/04/18. For personal use only. reduced than at present. Indeed, the upper mantle probably was highly reduced Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 2003.41:429-463. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org in the immediate aftermath of the Moon-forming impact, as evidenced by the distribution of moderately siderophile (iron-loving) elements in mantle-derived rocks (Righter & Drake 1997, 1999). However, the mantle redox state evolved rapidly to a more oxidized level as a consequence of loss of hydrogen to space and 3 subduction of oxidants such as ferric iron (Fe+ ), water, and carbonates (Catling et al.