MAKING NOISE: THE TRANSNATIONAL POLITICS OF ACEH AND EAST TIMOR IN THE DIASPORA by KARLA S. FALLON A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Political Science) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) May 2009 © Karla S. Fallon, 2009 Abstract This dissertation analyzes the transnational politics of two new or incipient diasporas, the Acehnese and East Tirnorese. It examines their political roles and activities in and across several countries in the West (Europe, North America, and Australia) as well as their impact on the “homeland” or country of origin, during and after armed conflict. It suggests that the importance of diaspora participation in conflict and conflict settlement is not solely or even primarily dependent on the material resources of the diaspora. Instead it is the ideational and political resources that may determine a diaspora’s ability to ensure its impact on the homeland, on the conflict, and its participation in the conflict settlement process. This study adopts a constructivist approach, process-tracing methods, and an analytical framework that combines insights from diaspora politics and theories on transnational advocacy networks (TANs). It concludes that the Aceh and East Timor cases support the proposition that diasporas are important and dynamic political actors, even when they are small, new, and weak. These cases also support the proposition that the political identities and goals of diasporas can be transformed over time as a diaspora is replenished with new members who have new or different ideas, as factions within diasporas gain power vis-à-vis others, and/or as the political partners available to the diaspora in the hostland and internationally change or broaden. The analysis of a diaspora’s relationship with a transnational advocacy network or networks (TAN) yields new insights into conflict settlement processes. Diasporans potentially learn from, contribute to, and benefit from TAN strategies and tactics. The TAN itself can help project the political influence of the diaspora. More significantly, the diaspora TAN relationship, in certain cases, can have a transformative effect on the diaspora, potentially moderating its views and positions, and thereby facilitating conflict settlement. Moreover, the moderating influence of the diaspora-TAN relationship may have implications for the post-conflict consolidation of democracy, human rights norms, and civil society. 11 Table of.Contents Abstract ii Table of Contents iii List of Tables vi Glossary and Abbreviations vii Acknowledgements xii Chapter 1 1 Introduction 1 Major Questions and Propositions 5 Projecting Diaspora Politics: The Aceh and East Timor Cases 6 Analytical Framework—Diasporas and Transnational Advocacy Networks 6 The Cases 10 Methodology 13 Contributions of the Thesis 19 Chapter 2 21 Diaspora Politics 21 Review of Literature, Definitions, and Theoretical Approaches 21 Definitions, Features, and Typologies of Diasporas 22 Definitions and Features 24 Typologies 29 Definitions and Typologies Problematized 32 The Homeland as Territory, Symbol, and Ideal 32 Forced versus Voluntary Migration 34 9 35 Longevity or Age Agency and Dynamism in Definitions 37 Links to Other Theoretical Concepts 39 Ethnicity 39 The Nation-state and Nationalism 41 Globalization and Connectivity 45 9 47 Transnational Community or Diaspora The Politics of Diaspora 49 Situating Diaspora Politics 49 111 The Political Roles of Diasporas 53 Diaspora Identity, Agency, and Solidarity 56 Towards a Political Definition of Diaspora 59 Chapter 3 62 The Making of the Acehnese and East Timorese Diasporas 62 Historical Context and Classification 62 History of Migration 63 The East Timorese Migration 65 East Timorese in Diaspora by Country 75 The Acehnese Migration 77 Chapter 4 90 Diaspora Politics 90 Diaspora Actors, Practices, and Representation 90 The East Timorese Diaspora 91 Political Divisions and Early Political Activity (1970s to mid-1980s) 91 The Diplomatic Front: José Ramos-Horta (1970s to mid-1980s) 97 Diaspora Politics Widen (mid-1980s to 1999) 105 Bridging Divisions within the Diaspora (mid-1980s to 1999) 116 9 121 The East Timorese Diaspora: From Peace-wreckers to Peace-makers The Acehnese Diaspora 126 Hasan di Tiro: Exile and Early Political Activity (1979 to mid-1990s) 126 GAM’s Diaspora Diplomacy (1979 to mid-1990s) 133 The New Wave of Diasporans and Political Organization (mid-1990s to early 2000s)136 The New Wave: Political Activity (mid-1990s to mid-2000s) 144 Diaspora Politics: Top-down to Bottom-up? (2000 and beyond) 158 9 162 The Acehnese Diaspora: From Peace-wreckers to Peace-makers Chapter 5 168 Making Noise: Transforming and Projecting the Diaspora Voice through Transnational Advocacy Networks (TANs) and Partnerships 168 Transnational Advocacy Networks (TANs) and Diaspora Transformation 168 Conflict Settlement in East Timor 171 Conflict Settlement in Aceh 175 From Event to Catalyst: “Framing” and the Diaspora-Transnational Advocacy Network (TAN) Partnership Process 180 The Diaspora-TAN Partnership Process 183 iv Laying the Foundation for a Future East Timor Solidarity Movement 183 The Evolution of the East Timor Solidarity Movement 186 The Santa Cruz Massacre as Catalyst 189 The Diaspora-TAN Partnership Process and East Timor Conflict Settlement 194 Framing Complicity and Obligation 195 Effecting Change 200 The Diaspora-TAN Partnership Process 205 Lacking a Foundation for a Future Aceh Solidarity Movement 205 A Late-Evolving Aceh Solidarity Movement 209 The Diaspora-TAN Partnership Process and Aceh Conflict Settlement 214 Challenges in “Framing” the Aceh Conflict 216 Effecting Change 224 Chapter 6 232 Home: Un-making the Acehnese and East Timorese 232 Diasporas and the Impact of Return 232 East Timor: Diaspora Return and Political Power 234 Aceh: Diaspora Return and Political Power 251 Conclusion: A Look to the Future 269 Chapter 7 275 Conclusions 275 Challenges to Assumptions in Diaspora Literature 275 Materialist Explanations Assessed 276 Alternative Explanation: Ideational and Political Resources and Processes Matter 277 The Diaspora-TAN Relationship Evaluated 279 Questions and Suggestions for Future Study 282 Bibliography 288 v List of Tables Table 1. Estimates of East Timorese in Diaspora by Country 75 Table 2. East Timorese Political Leadership in Diaspora by Country 76 Table 3. Estimates of Acehnese in Diaspora by Country 87 vi Glossary and Abbreviations Aceh Center Diaspora organization in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Aceh Community Australia Diaspora political organization in Australia AETA Australia East Timor Association AHRO Aceh Human Rights Online (Australia-based joint diaspora and solidarity organization) Al Amnesty International APODETI Associacão Popular Democratica Popular Democratic Association ASAP Action in Solidarity with Asia Pacific (formerly ASIET) ASDT Associaçáo Social Democrática Timorense, Timorese Social Democratic Association (Precursor to Fretilin) ASIET Action in Solidarity with Indonesia and East Timor ASNLF (see GAM) Acheh-Sumatra National Liberation Front BRA Badan Reintegrasi Aceh Aceh Reintegration Board BRR Badan Rehabilitasi & Rekonstruksi, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Agency for Aceh and Nias Bupati Head of district (Indonesian) CAFOD Catholic Agency for Overseas Development CAVR (Chega!) Comissão de Acolhimento, Verdade e Reconciliaçäo de Timor Leste, Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor CIET Campaign for an Independent East Timor (Australia based org.) vii Glossary and Abbreviations CuR Catholic Institute for International Relations (renamed Progressio) CMI Crisis Management Initiative Helsinki-based NGO CNRM Conseiho Nacional da Resistencia Maubere National Council of Maubere Resistance CNRT Conseiho Nacional da Resistencia Timorense National Council of Timorese Resistance COHA Cessation of Hostilities Framework Agreement signed by the Government and Indonesia and GAM in December 2002 Co SPA Komisi Keberlanjutan Perdamaian, Aceh Commission on Sustaining Peace in AcehICoSPA DOM Daerah Operasi Militer Military Operation Zone/Area ETAN East Timor Action Network (U.S. solidarity organization), after East Timor independence changed name to East Timor and Indonesia Action Network and broadened scope of work to include Aceh and West Papua ETAN East Timor Alert Network (Canadian solidarity organization) ETRA East Timor Relief Association (Australia-based diaspora organization) Falintil Forcas Armadas da Libertaçäo Nacional de Timor Leste Armed Forces of National Liberation of East Timor Fenetil Frente Clandestina dos Estudiantes de Timor-Leste Clandestine Front of East Timorese Students Student group based in Indonesia Fretilin Revolutionary Front for and Independent East Timor Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente viii Glossary and Abbreviations GAM Gerakan Aceh Merdeka Free Aceh Movement HDC Henri Dunant Centre HRW Human Rights Watch ICG International Crisis Group Helsinki MoU Watch Tim Pemantau MoU Helsinki Aceh-based organization that advocates conformity of the LoGA with the text of the MoU IFA International Forum for Aceh (U.S.-based diaspora- established non-governmental organization) IMET International Military Education and Training Program (U.S. Gov.) Indonesian Solidarity Australia-based NGO INTERFET International Force for East Timor (1NTERFET) KPA Komite Peralihan Aceh Aceh Transition Committee Body created to accommodate former GAM fighters post-conflict