Department of International Studies Graduate School of Frontier Sciences The University of Tokyo 2017 Master’s Thesis Destiny of a Nation Denied: Commentary on the failed asylum of Turkish Kurds in Japan (日本におけるトルコ系クルド人の庇護不認定処分に対する批判的検討) Submitted 23 January, 2018 Adviser: Professor Mikiyasu Nakayama Co-Adviser: Professor Masahide Horita, Professor Riki Honda Hirotaka Fujibayashi 藤林 大貴 Table of Contents Page List of Illustrations .................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgement ...................................................................................................................... v Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ vi Abstract .................................................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Backgrounds .................................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 8 1.3. Methodology .................................................................................................................... 9 1.4. Thesis Structure ............................................................................................................. 14 Chapter 2: Kurdish Diaspora and A Path to Japan ...................................................................... 16 2.1. What is the Kurd? .......................................................................................................... 16 2.2 Kurdish Question in Turkey ............................................................................................ 25 2.3. Kurdish Migration beyond “Kurdistan” .......................................................................... 33 2.4. Kurdish Migration to Japan ............................................................................................ 37 Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................ 41 3.1. Theories of International Relations ................................................................................. 41 3.2. Analytical Liberalism ..................................................................................................... 47 3.3 Why Analytical Liberalism? ............................................................................................ 55 3.4. Applying Analytical Liberalism to this Study .................................................................. 63 Chapter 4: Exterior Dimension .................................................................................................. 66 4.1. Structure of International Refugee Regime ..................................................................... 66 4.2. Paradigm Shifts of International Refugee Regime ........................................................... 73 4.3. State Responsibility and “Burden-Sharing” .................................................................... 75 Chapter 5: Interior Dimension ................................................................................................... 80 5.1. Context of Refugee Governance in Japan ....................................................................... 80 5.2. Current System of Refugee Governance in Japan ............................................................. 83 5.3. Key Actors of Refugee Governance in Japan .................................................................. 90 Chapter 6: History of Japan’s Refugee Governance and Turkish Kurd Asylum ........................ 105 6.1. Emergence of Japan’s Refugee Governance .................................................................. 105 6.2. Reformations of Japan’s Refugee Governance .............................................................. 107 6.3. International Responses to Japan’s Refugee Governance ................................. 112 6.4. “Refoulement” of Kurdish Asylum-Seekers in Japan .................................................... 114 ii Chapter 7: Discussions ............................................................................................................ 129 7.1. Analysing the Strategic Interaction of Interior and Exterior Dimensions ....................... 129 7.2. Ideal and Reality of Refugee Governance ..................................................................... 132 7.3. Consequences of Denial: Kurdish Legal Limbo in Japan .............................................. 135 Chapter 8: Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 144 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 152 Appendices ............................................................................................................................. 198 iii List of Illustrations Page Map 1. Kurdistan .................................................................................................................. 21 Table 1. Realism, Liberalism and Constructivism .................................................................. 43 Table 2. Fundamental Assumptions of Analytical Liberalism ................................................. 50 Table 3. A Two-Stage Model of State Behaviour ................................................................... 53 Table 4. A Two-Stage Model in this Study ............................................................................. 65 Table 5. Overview of the Refugee Status Determination Process in Japan .............................. 87 Table 6. Chronology: Japan’s Refugee Governance and Turkish Kurd Asylum .................... 128 Appendix 1. Annual Number of Applications for Refugee Status in Japan ........................... 198 Appendix 2. Top 10 Countries of Origin of Asylum-Seekers in Japan .................................. 199 Appendix 3. Annual Number of Applications for Refugee Status in Japan from Top 10 Countries ...................................................................... 200 Appendix 4. Annual Trends of Refugee Status Determination in Japan ................................ 201 Appendix 5. Annual Trends of Refugee Status Determination for Turkish(-Kurd) Asylum-Seekers in Japan .................................................. 202 iv Acknowledgement My first word of thanks goes to all of the informants of this study. Their names cannot be disclosed here, but I would like to acknowledge and appreciate their kind supports for my research. I am grateful as well for the professors of the Department of International Studies at the Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, at the University of Tokyo, that ensured the completion of this project. In particular I would like to express my gratitude to my main-advisor, Professor. Mikiyasu Nakayama, and co-advisors, Professor. Masahide Horita and Professor. Riki Honda for their insights and constructive suggestions. Their worthwhile comments could help me writing this thesis. I would like to offer my special thanks to the professors of Institute of International and Civil Security at the Khalifa University of Science, Technology and Research in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates – Dr. Ash Rossiter, Dr. Brendon J. Cannon, and Dr. Athol Yates. I spent nearly one year in total working as a visiting researcher of the Khalifa University and they have been mentors, friends and colleagues throughout my time in Abu Dhabi, and they have been a constant source of inspiration through their work, ideas, and commitment to the area. I am especially grateful to Dr. Ash Rossiter because this project started when I first talked with him about the topic of this thesis - Kurdish migration to Japan – and he told me so many things important for my life. He is one of the most influential person for my life, and the enjoyable time with his lovely family is a precious memory for me. I have also had numerous influential discussions with Dr. Brendon J. Cannon, who gave me the opportunities to broaden my research interests. Though I cannot name everyone, but discussions with and feedback from the friends of mine in both of the University of Tokyo and the Khalifa University have either directly or indirectly contributed to this thesis. I would also like to acknowledge all of those who have helped me pursuing my study. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the support and patience of my family during the time which took to complete this work and in assisting me with the preparation of its final form. Their numerous supports have gotten me through the difficult times. v Abbreviations AKP Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi CIA Central Intelligence Agency DDKO Derimci Dogu Kultur Ocaklari EU European Union ICRRA Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act IDPs Internally Displaced Persons IOM International Organization for Migration JFBA Japan Federation of Bar Association LDP Liberal Democratic Party MOFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs MOJ Ministry of Justice NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NIMBY Not In My Back Yard PKK Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan RCJ Refugee Council Japan RHQ Refugee