3 Abstract The 1915-1918 Genocide unleashed a literary frenzy in Armenian communities in diaspora. It generated not only literary writing expressive of the urgency of the Armenian plight but also heated debates about the purpose, function and direction of Armenian literature, especially in the crucial period of 1919-1928. This thesis brings under scrutiny the discussions of Armenian literature in this crucial period - the formative years of post- Genocide Armenian diaspora in France, Egypt, and the USA. More importantly, it explores the role of literature and literary criticism in the formation of the Armenian cultural identity. The debates on the future of Armenian literature is found primarily in the printed press of the diaspora. Literary critical materials were mainly published in the form of articles in this printed press in the Western Armenian language, the “ official” language of post-Genocide Armenian diaspora. The focus of this thesis is understandably on materials appearing in the post-Genocide Armenian printed press during the years 1919-1928, in Cairo, Paris, Boston and New York, which are the main sites towards which Armenians in general and writers and intellectuals in particular gravitated in the post-Genocide exodus from Ottoman Turkey, including former Armenian cultural centres, such as Constantinople and Smyrna. This thesis, in seven chapters, provides a picture the cultural, political and intellectual topography of the post-Genocide Armenian diaspora. It gives an account of the resilience of the people of culture in the aftermath of the Genocide, when concerted efforts were made in the reorganisation of the cultural and educational life, in order to maintain the Armenian identity. It then discusses the different perceptions of literature by Armenian literary critics in the context of post-Genocide struggle for survival. This is intended to demonstrate the ways in which literature was mobilised for the struggle for survival and the building of community. Literature was not only an aesthetic enterprise but also a social and political institution, a potent tool in achieving social and political unity leading to the coherence and maintenance of Armenian cultural identity. It finally discusses the ways in which critics looked at the future direction of Armenian literature of the diaspora. Debates among the critics at the time, such as Kourken Mkhitarian, Peniamin Tashian, Nigoghos Sarafian, Garo Sasouni, Hrand Palouyian and others, focused on the feasibility of promoting Armenian ethnic values in literature outside “ homeland” . These debates, it may be argued, comprised two strands of thought. One viewed literature as an important tool of preservation of the Armenian cultural ProQuest Number: 10672900 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10672900 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 4 identity in diaspora from nationalist perspective. The proponents of this trend were senior writers, such as Garo Sasouni and Kourken Mkhitarian. And the other, headed by a new generation of writers, such as Nigoghos Saraflan and Hrand Palouyian, advocated an innovative approach to literature. It promoted the idea of hybridisation of Armenian literature with other literatures. These two trends would become the two dominant schools of Armenian literary criticism from 1928 until today. 1 Literature and Survival: Literary Criticism and the Construction of Cultural Identity in Armenian Printed Press of Diaspora 1919-1928 PhD Thesis Krikor Moskofian School of Oriental and African Studies University of London Supervisors Dr Wen-chin Ouyang Prof George Hewitt 3 Abstract The 1915-1918 Genocide engendered a flury of literary activity in Armenian communities in diaspora that generated not only writing that expressed the urgency of their plight but also heated debate about the purpose, function and direction of Armenian literature, especially in the crucial period of 1919-1928. This thesis scrutinises the discussions of Annenian literature in this period the fonnative years of post-Genocide Armenian diaspora in France, Egypt, and the USA. More important, it explores the role of literature and literary criticism in the formation of Armenian cultural identity. Debate about the future of Armenian literature is found primarily in the printed press of diaspora. Literary critical materials were mainly published in the form of articles in the Western Armenian language, the “ official55 language of post-Genocide Armenian diaspora. The focus of this thesis are materials appearing in the post-Genocide Armenian printed press during the years 1919-1928, in Cairo, Paris, Boston and New York, which were the main sites towards which Armenians in general and writers and intellectuals in particular gravitated in the exodus from Ottoman Turkey, including former Annenian cultural centres such as Constantinople and Smyrna. This thesis in seven chapters depicts the cultural, political and intellectual topography of the post-Genocide Armenian diaspora. It gives an account of the resilience of people involved in cultural activities in the aftennath of the Genocide, when concerted efforts were made to reorganise cultural and educational life in order to maintain the Annenian identity. It then discusses the different perceptions of literature by Annenian literary critics in the context of the post-Genocide struggle for survival. This is intended to demonstrate the ways in which literature was mobilised for the struggle for survival and the building of community. Literature was not only an aesthetic enterprise but a social and political institution, a potent tool in achieving social and political unity leading to the coherence and maintenance of Annenian cultural identity. Finally, the thesis discusses the ways in which critics looked at the future direction of diasporan Armenian literature. Debates at the time among critics such as Kourken Mkhitarian, Peniamin Tashian, Nigoghos Sarafian, Garo Sasouni, Hrand Palouyian and others, focused on the feasibility of promoting Armenian ethnic values in literature outside “ homeland55. These debates, it may be argued, comprised two strands of thought. One viewed literature as an important tool for preserving Armenian cultural identity 4 in diaspora from a nationalist perspective. The proponents of this trend were senior writers such as Garo Sasouni and Kourken Mkhitarian. And the other, headed by a new generation of writers including Nigoghos Sarafian and Hrand Palouyian, advocated an innovative approach to literature. It promoted the hybridisation of Armenian literature with other literatures. These two trends would become the two dominant schools of Annenian literary criticism from 1928 until today. Table of Contents Notes on transliteration, translation and references Transliteration ................................................ 16 Transliteration table ..................... 17 Translation ............... .17 Introduction Scope o f the thesis............................................ 18 Printed press-based research.................................................... .19 The linguistic parameters ................................................. 20 The term spyurk ................................... ..20 Other terminological concerns............... ................,.......,,..,..,.,,....21 Pre-Genocide diaspora............................... ...22 Post-Genocide diaspora.......................................................................................................25 Western Armenianness o f the diaspora.............................................................................. 26 Selecting critics and journals .............................................................................................. 28 The selection of the materials............................................................................................29 6 Comprehensive works on diaspora literature .........................................................29 Works on Armenian literary criticism........................................................................... ..31 The works..................................................................................................................................32 The importance o f this thesis .................................................................... 32 Objectives..................... 33 Methodology. .............................. 34 Organisation o f the thesis........................................................................................ 35 Chapter O ne.............................................................................................................. 35 Chapter Two ............................. .35 Chapter Three. ................................................................ 36 Chapter Four .................... ...............................................36 Chapter Five .................................. 36 Chapter Six..........................................................................