SOUNDS OF RITUAL: MUSIC ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE ANCIENT ANDES FROM THE EARLY HORIZON THROUGH THE MIDDLE HORIZON (900 BC-AD 1000) A Thesis Submitted to the Committee on Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Faculty of Arts and Science TRENT UNIVERSITY Peterborough, Ontario, Canada © Copyright by Jenna Green 2011 Anthropology M.A. Graduate Program October 2011 Library and Archives Bibliotheque et 1*1 Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington OttawaONK1A0N4 OttawaONK1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-81098-9 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-81098-9 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le loan, distribute and sell theses monde, a des fins commerciaies ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non­ support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privee, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de thesis. cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. 1+1 Canada ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. John Topic, my thesis supervisor. His expert advice, mentorship, and knowledge, have been a constant throughout my graduate school experience. Furthermore, his passion for the people and culture of the Andes has inspired me, first as an undergraduate student at Trent, and later on, as I completed graduate school. I would not have undergone a Masters degree, had it not been for Dr. Topic's commitment to the Andean culture area. Secondly, I would like to thank the Anthropology faculty at Trent University. I thoroughly enjoyed my studies and owe specific gratitude to Dr. Paul Healy, and Dr. Susan Jamieson, who taught me for several years as an undergraduate student. Field school with Dr. Jamieson was a great learning experience for me and a wonderful way to spend the summer. Dr. Healy was an excellent teacher and taught me a great amount about archaeology. He also served on my thesis committee and always had useful comments and suggestions which greatly improved my thesis. To the rest of my thesis committee, Dr. Jocelyn Williams, and my external, Dr. Alana Cordy-Collins, thank you so much for providing different points of view. Anthropology is greatly improved by having multiple inputs, and your critiques and suggestions have ultimately made my thesis stronger and more critical. Lastly, I would like to thank my family and friends for their support. In particular, my fiance, Adam, ha~s been my best friend and biggest supporter throughout this entire process. I do not know that I would have made it through graduate school without his words of encouragement and his belief in me the entire time. Thank you. ii ABSTRACT Sounds of Ritual: Music Archaeology of the Ancient Andes from the Early Horizon to the Middle Horizon (900 BC-AD 1000) Jenna Green This thesis examines the music archaeology of the central Andes, during the Early Horizon, Early Intermediate Period, and Middle Horizon (ca. 900 BC to AD 1000). Various archaeological contexts that contain musical instruments are discussed. These contexts, in comparison with ethnographic and historic data, highlight that music in the central Andes was used in various rituals related to agricultural fertility, shamanism, rites of passage, and ancestor worship. In particular, musical instruments are typically found in public, ceremonial contexts. The specific contexts within the sites reveal that various groups in the central Andes used musical instruments in different rituals. Nevertheless, there are common archaeological contexts that contain musical instruments across the temporal and spatial sample, indicating that music has developed as part of an Andean tradition, practiced differently by past groups, but sharing a similar meaning over time. Keywords: South America, Andean culture, Music archaeology, Anthropology, Ritual, Tradition, Practice, Early Horizon, Early Intermediate Period, Middle Horizon, Archaeological Context, Ethnography, Ethnohistory, Analogy. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii ABSTRACT iii TABLE OF CONTENTS iv LIST OF FIGURES viii LIST OF TABLES xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE MUSIC AND ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE PRE-HIPSANIC ANDES 1 ANDEAN MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 3 Aerophones 4 Membranophones 7 Idiophones 7 ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND 8 The Coast 12 The Highlands 13 The Eastern Tropics 14 THESIS OUTLINE 15 CHAPTER 2: METHOD AND THEORY OF MUSIC ARCHAEOLOGY 17 - DATA COLLECTION 18 Archaeological sample 18 Context and sub-context 21 Culture 21 Instrument type 22 iv Material and quantity 22 Time period 23 Site and site function 23 Region 24 HISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC ANALOGIES 25 Direct-historical approach 27 SUMMARY 30 CHAPTER 3: MUSIC, ARCHAEOLOGY, AND PRACTICE 32 PRACTICE THEORY 32 CONTEMPORARY ANDEAN COSMOLOGY 35 SUMMARY 39 CHAPTER 4: MUSIC IN CONTEMPORARY ANDEAN SOCIETIES 40 CONTEMPORARY INDIGENOUS MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 41 The language of Andean music 44 Group identity 46 Playing as one 47 SEASONAL DIVISION OF MUSIC '. 49 Seasonal instruments 51 Agricultural fertility 52 Tinku in contemporary musical practice 54 Complementarity 58 Transformation 60 Healing 64 SUMMARY 68 v CHAPTER 5: ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXTS OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 70 BURIAL CONTEXTS 70 Moche burials 72 Other burial contexts 77 CACHES AND TEMPLES 80 Chavin de Huantar .82 Cahuachi and Nasca music '. 89 Tiwanaku 94 CerroBaul 98 DOMESTIC CONTEXTS 101 FORTRESSES , 103 Nepefla Valley 104 Santa Valley 105 Casma Valley 110 HuauraVally Ill Supe Valley : 112 SUMMARY 114 CHAPTER 6: MUSICAL PRACTICE IN THE PRE-HISPANIC ANDES 116 PRE-HISPANIC CENTRAL ANDEAN RITUALS 116 Death and burial 117 Trophy heads 122 Tinku warfare 125 Construction and termination rituals 130 vi Ancient Andean pilgrimage and ancestor worship 133 Shamanism, divination, and healing 135 CULTURAL CONTINUITY AND CHANGE 142 Tradition 144 Identity and performance 145 CHAPTER 7: SUMMARY OF ANDEAN MUSIC 148 CONTEXTS AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENT TYPES 148 MUSICAL PRACTICE IN THE ANCIENT ANDES 150 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANDEAN ARCHAEOLOGY 152 REFERENCES CITED 154 APPENDLXI 171 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Bone flutes excavated from the site of Caral, deposited around 2100 BC 5 Figure 2. Strombus shell trumpet with a metal mouthpiece 6 Figure 3. Early Horizon whistles from the North Coast 7 Figure 4. Map of the central Andean culture area 9 Figure 5. Major life zones of the central Andes 12 Figure 6. Ceremonial cycle of Qamawara, Peru 42 Figure 7. Illustration of Inka rituals during the month of October 55 Figure 8. Four maizu panpipes showing ira (top) and area (bottom three) from Chipayas, Bolivia 61 Figure 9. Moche iconographic scene showing musicians in a procession with various types of musical instruments and objects associated with combat 73 Figure 10. Rattle excavated from Tomb 1, the Lord of Sipan's burial containing scenes of the Decapitator figure 75 Figure 11. Tomb 5 at Sipan of adult male interred with panpipes and other items 76 Figure 12. Cache of 48 trophy heads from Cerro Carapo which contained 7 panpipe fragments 79 Figure 13. Gold crown found associated with the Strombus shell trumpets at Kuntur Wasi 80 Figure 14. Major galleries located within the monumental core of Chavin de Huantar 83 viii Figure 15. The Lanzon, located in the Lanzon Gallery at Chavin de Huantar 84 Figure 16. Three of the 20 Strombus shell trumpets excavated from the Gallery of the Shells at Chavin de Huantar 86 Figure 17. Aerial photograph of Pikillacta, in the Valley of Cuzco 88 Figure 18. Map of Unit 19 including the Room of the Posts 93 Figure 19. Map of the ancient site of Tiwanaku, outlining the main ceremonial sectors..95 Figure 20. Bone panpipe flutes from Misiton I at Lukurmata 98 Figure 21. Monumental architecture on the summit of Cerro Baul 99 Figure 22. Illustration of the ceramic drum excavated from the Temple Annex at Cerro Baul 101 Figure 23. Plan of Chuquicanra, Court CI, where a whistle fragment was located 103 Figure 24. Map of the main central Andean rivers 105 Figure 25. Plan of PV31-254 (top) and PV31-253 (bottom), the former showing two central platforms inside fortification walls 108 Figure 26. Structure 34 (fortress) at SVP-VIN-20 in the Santa Valley 110 Figure 27. Musical procession in Moche iconography showing the elite status of panpipe players 118 Figure 28. Nasca ceremonial vessel depicting shamans/musicians playing panpipes and rattles around mummy bundles; one holds a trophy head 125 . Figure 29. Moche V dance scene with musicians and warriors 128 Figure 30. Moche stirrup spout vessel with scene depicting warriors with death figures playing panpipes in the background and a central drum player 129 Figure 31.