A WORLD BANK STUDY Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Greening the Wind ENVIRONMENTAL AND Public Disclosure Authorized SOCIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR WIND POWER DEVELOPMENT George C. Ledec Public Disclosure Authorized Kennan W. Rapp Roberto G. Aiello WORLD BANK STUDY Greening the Wind Environmental and Social Considerations for Wind Power Development George C. Ledec Kennan W. Rapp Roberto G. Aiello Copyright © 2011 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org 1 2 3 4 14 13 12 11 Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) reports are published to communicate the re- sults of ESMAP’s work to the development community with the least possible delay. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available. 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Contents Foreword .....................................................................................................................................v Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ vii Acronyms and Abbreviations .............................................................................................viii Executive Summary ..................................................................................................................xi 1. Objectives and Scope of this Report .................................................................................1 2. Overview of Wind Power Development ..........................................................................3 3. Making Wind Power Safer for Biodiversity ................................................................... 13 Biodiversity Impacts of Wind Power ............................................................................. 13 Biodiversity-Friendly Practices for Wind Power Projects ........................................... 29 4. Addressing the Social Impacts of Wind Power ............................................................. 57 Typical Social Impacts in Wind Power Development ................................................. 57 Managing the Social Impacts of Wind Power ............................................................... 74 5. Final Considerations ........................................................................................................... 93 6. Appendixes .......................................................................................................................... 101 Appendix A. Case Study: Mexico La Venta II Wind Power Project ......................... 103 Appendix B. Case Study: Colombia Jepirachi Wind Power Project......................... 107 Appendix C. Case Study: Uruguay Wind Farm Project ............................................ 113 Appendix D. Correction Factors for Real versus Observed Bird and Bat Mortality ...................................................................................................................1 19 References ................................................................................................................................ 123 Color Photo Insert .................................................................................................................. 143 Boxes Box 3.1: Reasons to be Concerned about Biodiversity .........................................................14 Box 3.2: Raptor Mortality at Altamont Pass, California ......................................................18 Box 3.3: White-tailed Eagle Population Collapse at Smola, Norway ................................20 Box 3.4: Hypotheses for Bat A raction to Wind Turbines ..................................................23 Box 3.5: Alternative Turbine Designs .....................................................................................35 Box 4.1: An Example of Land-Related Confl icts in Energy Development in China........71 Box 4.2: Steps to Eff ective Stakeholder Participation ..........................................................79 Box 4.3: Wind Power Cooperatives in Denmark: An Applicable Model for Developing Countries? .....................................................................................................89 Box 4.4: Creating Incentives for Community Wind Development in Minnesota, USA .................................................................................................................90 iii iv Contents Figures Figure 2.1: Global Wind Power Installed Capacity ...............................................................4 Figure 2.2: Installed Wind Capacity (MW) in Top 10 Countries, 2009-2010 ......................4 Figure 2.3: Top 5 Countries in Off shore Wind (MW) ............................................................7 Figure 2.4: Typical Structural Components of a Wind Turbine ........................................10 Figure 2.5: Typical Elements of an Onshore Wind Farm ...................................................11 Figure 4.1: Wind Turbine Placement with Regard to Sound Impacts ............................144 Tables Table 2.1: No Free Lunch—Environmental and Social Impacts of Power Generation Technologies ....................................................................................................8 Table 2.2: Wind Power Projects Financed by the World Bank Group ................................9 Table 3.1: Eff ects of Increased Turbine Cut-in Speed on Bat Mortality and Power Generation .........................................................................................................................49 Table 4.1: Employment Generated by Development Projects in Three Sectors in Latin American Countries and the United States ........................................................63 Table 4.2: Comparison of Diff erent Revenue-sharing Arrangements ..............................84 Table 5.1: Environmental and Social Impacts of Wind Power Projects and Corresponding Mitigation or Enhancement Options ..................................................95 Foreword ccording to the International Energy Agency, electricity demand is projected to Agrow by around 30 percent by 2020. With growing a ention to climate consider- ations and cost concerns regarding thermal generation as petroleum prices rise, alter- native generation technologies will become increasingly important in tackling energy security issues. Renewable energy, and wind energy in particular, will be key in helping to meet this growing demand in a sustainable way. As wind power is one of the most promising renewable resources in existence to- day, it off ers several potential benefi ts. In the past decade, the use of wind power has expanded dramatically around the world, boosted by favorable economics, increasing interest in low-carbon technologies, and supportive governmental policies driven by the numerous benefi ts wind can provide. Since wind power does not rely on imported fuels, it helps countries to be er use local resources while diversifying generation sources. Furthermore, by relying less on petroleum-based fuels with potentially high and volatile prices, wind power can help reduce the risk profi le of the sector. In addition, if wind energy displaces fossil fuel–generated electricity, it can reduce carbon emissions in a cost-eff ective manner. Reducing carbon emissions has both environmental and econom- ic value; the la er will become more evident as future uses of carbon-intensive fuels are further constrained. Wind power also has the potential to reduce air pollution at the local level by replacing more polluting sources of power generation, thereby improv- ing environmental and human health. Finally, wind power stands out among all major power generation technologies (renewable