Ambiguous tribalism: Unrecognized Indians and the federal acknowledgement process Item Type text; Dissertation-Reproduction (electronic) Authors Miller, Mark Edwin Publisher The University of Arizona. Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author. Download date 10/10/2021 23:09:07 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/279824 INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly f^ the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may t)e from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy sulMnitted. 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Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 AMBIGUOUS TRIBAUSM: UNRECOGNIZED INDIANS AND THE FEDERAL ACKNOWLEDGMENT PROCESS By Mark Edwin Miller Copyright © Mark Edwin Miller 2001 A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA 2001 UMI Number: 3023535 Ig) UMI UMI Microform 3023535 Copyright 2001 by Bell & Mowell Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Bell & Howeii Information and Leaming Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 2 THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA ® GRADUATE COLLEGE As members of the Final Examination Committee, we certify that we have read the dissertation prepared by Mark Edwin Miller entitled AMBIGUOUS TRIBALISM; UNRECOGNIZED INDIANS AND THE FEDERAL ACKNOWLEDGMENT PROCESS and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Ci^ ^A- 7/17/01 Anderson/) 777 ^ Date Jogej^. Nichols Date Katharine Morrissey / Date Date Date Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon the candidate's submission of the final copy of the dissertation to the Graduate College. I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement. .(hJhAjJ^ 7/17/01 Dissertation Director Karen Anderson Date 3 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder. SIGNED; 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people and organizations have guided this project to its ultimate completion. Both in professional and personal terms, I could not have finished this work without the support of numerous individuals who lent much needed aid at key moments. First, I must thank my dissertation director Karen Anderson for her unwavering support, intellectual guidance, and periodic "pep talks." In her company were three other individuals who graciously agreed to serve on my committee: Katherine Momssey, who offered critical insights and suggestions to improve my prose and ideas; Roger Nichols, who has continued to aid my writing and focus; and David Wilkins, who offered enthusiastic support while bringing his expertise on acknowledgment issues to this project. Finally, Leonard Dinnerstein and Maureen Fitzgerald, also hold a special place in my heart, having seen the potential in me that others may have missed. This work also benefited from help given to me by numerous archivists, librarians, and philanthropic institutions. In Arizona, I must thank the librarians at the Special Collections at the University of Arizona Main Library, the Arizona Historical Society, the Arizona State Museum, Northern Arizona University, and the Hayden Library of Arizona State University. In California, the Death Valley National Park office allowed me access to its files. In Texas, Tom Diamond happily let me roam over his large collection, while the staffs at the University of Texas at El Paso, the LBJ Presidential Library, the Texas State Archives, and the Institute of Texan Cultures all helped me mine sources. The archivists at the Louisiana State University, the Louisiana State Library, and Northwest State University proved highly helpful as well. Access to the vast hol^ngs at the National Archives was also invaluable. I would also like to thank the Bureau of Indian Affairs' Branch of Acknowledgment and Research, and Steve Austin, in particular, for allowing me access to their records. They proved patient and helpful at dl stages of this work. Finally, this work benefited from the kind financial support of many institutions, including the American Historical Association's Littleton- Griswold fund, the Charles Redd Center for Western Studies at Brigham Young University, the Arizona Archaeological and Historical Society, the East Texas Historical Society, and the Udall fund from the University of Arizona Library. At the University of Arizona, my home department, the Social and Behavioral Sciences Research Institute, and the Graduate College all provided additional funds to support this work. Where would this project have been, however, without the help of family and friends through the years? To my wife Gia goes the ultimate thanks for sustaining me on a daily basis and listening to my complaints and ideas when her life was often much more difficult than mine. Thanks also goes to my mother, Penny Castle, for believing in my career choice and having constant enthusiasm about my work; and to my father, Charlie Miller and his wife Laurie, for their support through more years than any parent should see their children in school. Here in Tucson, Gia's parents, Dee and Bette, were always a positive presence in our lives. Finally, I must also thank Alan and Stacey Cotton for opening their home in Maryland to us longer than any friend should see a visitor stay. To the numerous individuals, both Indian and non-Indian, who shared their life experiences and insights with me goes another round of thanks. To my family and these kind souls goes the last, and final, thanks. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT: 6 INTRODUCTION: OTHER AND IN-BETWEEN 8 CHAPTER I: THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF TRIBAL ACKNOWLEDGMENT POLICY, 1776-1978 54 CHAPTER 2: BUILDING AN EDIFICE: THE BIA'S FEDERAL ACKNOWLEDGMENT PROCESS (FAP), 1978-1999 116 CHAPTER 3: BYPASSING THE BUREAU: THE PASCUA YAQUIS' QUEST FOR LEGISLATIVE RECOGNITION 203 CHAPTER 4: SOMETIMES SALVATION: THE DEATH VALLEY TIMBISHA SHOSHONE OF CALIFORNIA AND THE FAP 302 CHAPTER 5: AMBIGUOUS TRIBALISM: THE UNITED HOUMA NATION OF LOUISIANA AND THE FAP, 1682-1930 374 CHAPTER 6: THE HOUMA AND MODERN TRIBALISM, 1930-PRESENT 427 CHAPTER 7: FROM PLAYING INDIAN TO PLAYING SLOTS: GAMING, TRIBAL RECOGNITION, AND THE TIGUAS OF EL PASO, TEXAS 492 CONCLUSION: THE OPPOSITE OF EXTINCTION 580 WORKS CITED: 597 6 ABSTRACT There are currently over two hundred Indian groups seeking recognition by Congress or the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). Every month, articles appear detailing recently acknowledged tribes such as the Pequot opening high stakes gaming enterprises. This study examines several once unrecognized Indian conmiunities and their efforts to gain federal sanction through the BIA's Branch of Acknowledgment and Research or Congress. By focusing on four Indian communities, the Pascua Yaquis, the Timbisha Shoshone, the Tiguas of Ysleta del Sur Pueblo, and the United Houma Nation, this work explores the strategies groups pursue to gain acknowledgment and the different outcomes that result. In its details, the work reveals ethnic identity in relation to the state bureaucracy while also demonstrating that groups must "play Indian" to both Indians and non-Indians to prove their racial and cultural identity. The case studies examine ethnic resurgence and cultural survival, the effects of the civil rights movement and Great Society social programs on these entities, and the historical impact of non-recognition on groups in several regions of the United States. This study also takes a broader look