2. Trade Unions 2.1 Introduction The two main strands comprising the British Labour Party are the Trade Unions and the ideas of Socialism. Both these topics require separate treatment and are dealt with next, but suffice it to say that by the second half of the 19th century Trade Unions had become a firm part of the social and political landscape and socialism, having struggled to gain a foothold through much of the century, had a major revival in the 1880s. It is the eventual co-joining of these two forces in 1900 that marks the start of the Labour Party. Trade Union banners at the Durham Miners Gala 2.2 The Precursors If we take the Webbs’1 definition of trade unions as, “a continuous association of wage-earners for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their working lives” then the origins of trade unions lie in the gradual emergence of the modern working class from the late 17th century and 18th century. Even then the existence of continuous associations cannot really be said to exist. For that you have to jump to the middle of the 19th century. But early examples provide a basis for later development. 2.3 Medieval Guilds Some historians seek to trace trade unions back into the medieval period by drawing parallels with the Guild system. But, these were in many ways restrictive organisations designed to protect monopoly and prevent apprentices 1 The History of Trade Unionism, by Sidney and Beatrice Webb Page 1 of 10 from earning too much or transitioning into skilled journeymen too soon. Both masters and journeymen were members of the craft Guilds. However, they can be seen as combinations designed to impact employment conditions for sectional interests. 2.4 Hatters and Chapels—the 17th Century Tracing back the origins of modern trade unions is difficult because workers were often forced to act secretly. The masters were deeply hostile to any attempt to improve wages and conditions in trades. The most complete example we have of an early trade union is the Journeymen Hatters Trade Union of Great Britain and Ireland, which was founded in 1667 and carried on for over a century. In the 18th century more examples emerge when Tailor journeymen are recorded as well organised and Printers “chapels”, noted as early as 1666, had become established for compositors. 2.5 Onset of Industrial Capitalism—the 18th Century The onset of industrial capitalism in the late 18th century heralded a much greater effort by workers to establish trade unions. Miners and those working in textiles made valiant efforts to build viable associations during this early phase of capitalism but were usually defeated and driven out of existence. Brief victories were quickly overturned. This was a period of unceasing bravery and determination in the face of impossible odds. The principles of workers unity, solidarity of action and detestation of scabs and blacklegs became scorched deep into the minds of trade unionists during this period. Both the new factory workers and the artisans working in their cottage industries were forced to defend their conditions in the face of relentless pressure from the new class of industrial capitalists. Cottage Industry Early factory production To combat this the owners of factories and mines used the law to prevent combinations or to heavily circumscribe any actions such workers might want to take, especially strike action. In addition, leaders and any known members of unions were usually sacked, evicted, if in tied accommodation, and generally harassed. 2.6 Friendly Societies Combinations of workers did not only exist to defend wages and conditions but also to provide benefits in times of sickness and death. These were called Page 2 of 10 Friendly Societies and were common throughout the 18th century and later form an important aspect of modern trade union purpose. 2.7 Repression—1790s to 1824 In the fevered atmosphere of the late 18th and early 19th centuries the Government adopted numerous repressive pieces of legislation. Their main fears were uprisings and even revolution. The French Revolution and the War with France added to their panic. Among the measures adopted were the suspension of habeas Corpus and the passing of the Combinations Acts of 1799 and 1800. This allowed capitalists to bring tough actions against organisers and agitators for socialism and trade unionism. The Combinations Acts were not relaxed until 1824. In addition, another law, passed in 1797 banning the administering of unlawful oaths, was directly aimed at trade unions. However, these measures failed to stem continued attempts to form trade unions. Some owners of factories, especially the larger ones preferred trying to reach some accommodation with their workers so as to maintain production and profits. The climax of agitation against repressive laws and lack of democracy occurred in 1819 with the event known as the Peterloo Massacre. This will be the subject of a separate piece. Although constant efforts were made to form trade unions and press for improvements at work the capacity to create lasting and effective trade unions proved much more difficult. This was largely due to the poverty of workers and their inability to afford union dues but the constant oppression by the factory and mine owners also played a significant part. There were also a vast number of workers who were unskilled or subject to frequent lay offs. They proved difficult to organise at this time and they provided a pool of unemployed and desperate workers who could be deployed by the bosses to undermined strikes and other efforts to improve conditions. These workers remained without trade unions throughout most of the 19th century. 2.8 Luddites Artisans in weaving and knitting, usually working from home or in small groups, sought to form trade unions and combinations to defend their position against new mechanisation and the rise of factory production. Their position became desperate and they resorted to conspiratorial action to destroy new machines, Page 3 of 10 set fire to factories and similar actions. They became known as the Luddites and were eventually defeated by the use of the army and militias and their leaders executed or transported to Australia. These cottage industries gradually collapsed and largely disappeared. 2.9 Attempts at General Unions The repeal of the Combination Acts in 1824 and 1825 made it lawful for workers to belong to peaceful trade unions. But, new harsher penalties were put into place for violence and intimidation. Trade Unions were still subject to criminal law when trying to pursue their objectives. In order to try to escape from the limitations of small unions efforts were made to form more general unions. The Builders, mainly in London were able to establish a brief viable general union in the 1830s and this together with the impact of the ideas of the socialist, Robert Owen, led to the creation of one big union for all workers. This was formed and called the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union (1833-34). It was met with enthusiasm and several workers sought to join from different trades. 2.10 Tolpuddle Martyrs In 1834 some Dorset agricultural labourers from Tolpuddle formed a Friendly Society and decided to affiliate to the Grand National Union. Page 4 of 10 As there was considerable unrest throughout farming communities at this time the Government acted quickly and arrested six labourers who were charged with administering unlawful oaths. They were transported to Australia for 7 years. This led to massive protests and demonstrations and they were eventually pardoned in 1836. The Grand National Union collapsed after little over a year because very few of the half a million members were able to afford to pay the Union dues. 2.11 The Aristocracy of Labour The new era of trade unionism began on a smaller scale through the creation of industry-specific trade unions during the 1840s and 1850s. Carpenters, shoemakers, stonemasons and engineers achieved some success this way and gradually other craft trades followed suit. These new formations were less inclined to strike and placed emphasis on building up their finance, organisation and benefits, rather in the manner of Friendly Societies. They had full-time secretaries and gradually a small union bureaucracy was established. The success of trade unions at this time was largely limited to skilled workers and they adopted a superior attitude to the rest of the working class, their leaders often adopting the style and modes of the middle class or the bourgeois. This “aristocracy” of labour as it was termed began to develop ingrained “conservative” values and in so far as they took an interest in politics saw their place in urging support for the Liberal Party and occasionally the Tories. These mid years of the 19th century represented the most stable period of Victorian Britain, when the new bourgeois class was confident in their power, the British Empire was expanding rapidly and the British economy dominated the world. This laid the basis for what Engels was later to call the “bourgeoisification” of the leaders of these skilled workers, the so-called aristocracy of the working class. 2.12 Trades Councils Trades Councils form an important part of our story as they played a significant role in the development of both the trade union movement and the early Labour Party. Probably the first such organisation was the Liverpool Trades Guardian Association, formed in 1848 to protect Trade Unions from suppression by the employers’ use of the criminal law. Page 5 of 10 Glasgow too had an early series of joint committees of delegates from Trade Unions with a similar purpose. An Association of Organised Trades was formed in Sheffield in 1857.