Son Preference in Anhui Province, China By Maureen J. Graham, Ulla Larsen and Xiping Xu nancy and sterilization for couples with Context: Chinese couples, particularly those in rural areas, have historically had a strong pref- two or more children. By 1983, there was erence for sons. This preference may affect couples’ reproductive behavior and their treatment an even stronger campaign for abortion of girl vs. boy children. and sterilization, and out of desperation Methods: A community-based household survey was conducted in two rural counties of Anhui for a boy, some parents may have killed 8 Province in 1993. Responses from 5,779 women of reproductive age who had had at least one newborn daughters. birth yielded data on sex ratios, duration of breastfeeding and childbearing patterns. In 1984, with a shift in leadership, China restructured its population policy. While Results: The overall sex ratio was 1.18 male births per female birth, significantly higher than maintaining the goal of holding the popu- the expected ratio of 1.06; for first, second and third or higher order births, ratios were 1.17, 1.12 lation at 1.2 billion in the year 2000, the new and 1.16, respectively. The sex ratio was low in 1980–1986, when the national one-child policy policy allowed rural couples to have two was strictly enforced, and was significantly elevated before 1980 (1.18) and in 1987–1993 (1.22). children. It also eliminated forced abortions, Last-born children, regardless of family size, had the highest sex ratio. Girls were breastfed for mandatory IUD insertions and financial a significantly shorter duration than boys, particularly if they had an older sister and no broth- penalties for exceeding the limit, and gave ers. Since 1980, couples with only a girl have been slightly more likely than those with only a couples more choice for contraceptive use.9 boy to have a second child; those with two girls have been 5–6 times as likely as those with two In 1985, the policy became less restrictive, boys to have a third child. The interval between pregnancies is shorter when the previous child was a girl than when the previous child was a boy. as the overall population goal changed to about 1.2 billion in the year 2000. Under a Conclusions: Couples in Anhui control the size of their families and attempt to control the sex 1986 regulation, couples were allowed to composition. If China’s fertility decline continues and the preference for sons remains unchanged, sign an agreement with the government discrimination against girls may intensify. not to have a third child, rather than un- International Family Planning Perspectives, 1998, 24(2):72–77 dergo sterilization. Since 1988, several cam- paigns have promoted the status of girls and encouraged later marriage. Plans for on preference has deep cultural roots work, offer financial support to aging par- more solid social security benefits have also in many Asian countries.1 The sex ents, continue the family name and receive been implemented, to lessen the need for Sratio at birth in these countries ex- the family inheritance; in the past, they children to care for the elderly.10 ceeds the expected ratio of 106 male births also were responsible for ancestor wor- The population control policy, coupled per 100 female births,2 possibly reflecting ship.3 Sons are particularly preferred in with a decrease in desired family size, has social or behavioral interference. In China, rural farming areas of China and among been followed by increases in sex ratios at where son preference has historically been less educated parents.4 Using a small sub- birth.11 Three main reasons may explain strong, sons are needed to carry out farm- set of a population from Anhui Province the increased sex ratios: sex-selective in- in China, we explore son preference in fanticide, gender-specific abortion and *Although the one-child policy was issued on the national rural agricultural areas, where the sex concealment of female births.12 Excess fe- level, each province decides the circumstances under which couples may have two children, so as to implement ratio at birth is generally higher than the male infant mortality and couples’ ten- 5 the policy in accordance with local social, economic, po- ratio in urban areas. dency to place female babies for adoption litical and cultural conditions. In Anhui and other pre- also may have played a role in the years dominantly rural provinces, these circumstances are as Background since 1980.13 follows: a couple’s first child suffers from a nonheredi- During the 1970s, under the wan-xi-shao Fertility is higher in rural than urban tary disease or a disability and is unable to become a nor- mal worker; one spouse is a veteran with a severe dis- (later, longer, fewer) policy, the Chinese areas, partly because the population pol- ability; one spouse has been working in mining government encouraged but did not en- icy allows for rural couples to have more continuously for more than five years, and the couple’s force population control. Couples were children, and partly because enforcement first child is a girl; a peasant couple whose first child is urged to marry later, wait longer between is more difficult in rural areas.14 Conse- a girl lives in a mountainous area where population 6 growth has been negligible for a long time; both spous- births and have few children. The na- quently, rural couples are more likely than es belong to an ethnic minority group; in a rural family tional policy limiting families to having their urban counterparts to have a son by with no sons, a daughter marries uxorily (i.e., the hus- one child was announced in 1979.*7 The chance. The extent to which individuals band joins the wife’s family); one member of a rural cou- government also set a goal of a population modify their childbearing behavior to ple is an only child; both spouses are only children; only one male child in a peasant family is able to reproduce; of 1.2 billion in the year 2000, and to achieve the desired sex composition of pregnancy occurs after a couple who have remained achieve that goal, it enforced the one-child their children is not well understood. childless for many years adopt a child, and the wife is at policy more strictly over time: Between least 35; one spouse in a second marriage has never had 1982 and 1983, the regulations included Maureen J. Graham is research associate, and Xiping Xu children and the other is widowed with two children; to- mandatory IUD insertion for all women is associate professor, Department of Environmental gether, a remarried couple have fewer than two living Health; Ulla Larsen is associate professor, Department children; and both spouses are returned overseas Chi- who had one child, abortion for any of Population and International Health—all at the Har- nese. (Source: reference 7.) woman who had an unauthorized preg- vard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA. 72 International Family Planning Perspectives The Study Area census bureaus. Special- Table 1. Ratio of male births to female births, by parity, according In the early 1980s, the population of Anhui ly trained interviewers to year, Anhui Province, China Province totaled approximately 50 million; and permanent staff in 1997, it was about 61 million.15 The Parity No. of births All years Before 1980–1986 1987–1993 from Anhui Medical 1980 province’s socioeconomic status is low to University visited each (N=13,473) (N=4,389) (N=4,846) (N=4,238) medium for China: For example, in 1986, household and conduct- All 13,473 1.18*** 1.18*** 1.07 1.22*** the per capital gross national product was ed face-to-face inter- 1 5,779 1.17** 1.20* 1.03 1.27*** 916 yuan nationally and 698 yuan in views. The respondents 2 4,451 1.12*** 1.12 1.07 1.21** ≥ Anhui; in 1997, these figures were 6,048 were all Han, the main 3 3,243 1.16* 1.23** 1.14 1.07 yuan and 4,378 yuan, respectively.16 nationality in China. *Significantly different from expected ratio of 1.06 at p<.05. **Significantly different from ex- pected ratio of 1.06 at p<.01. ***Significantly different from expected ratio of 1.06 at p<.001. Our analysis, which focuses on the An- Approximately 16,000 Note: Excludes 1,080 births with incomplete information on the year of birth. qing region, is based on a 1993 community women and 20,000 men survey conducted in two counties, Huai- were extensively inter- ning and Zongyang, where the majority viewed about their health status and med- first to second birth and second to third of people are employed as agricultural ical history, occupational exposures, smok- birth because too few women had had a workers. In the mid-1980s, the population ing, living conditions and diet. fourth or a fifth child (703 and 371, re- of Huaining was 745,500, and that of An additional questionnaire, adminis- spectively). Time to first birth could not Zongyang was 934,000; the average life ex- tered to 14,017 women aged 15 or older, in- be analyzed because information on mar- pectancy in both counties was similar to cluded questions on women’s pregnancy riage date was not complete. that for China overall (about 65 years).17 history, lifestyle before childbearing, men- The two counties are quite similar, the strual cycle and age at menarche. Of the Results main difference being that Huaining pro- 10,904 respondents who had had at least Sex Ratios duces cotton and Zongyang produces rice one delivery, 3,520 did not report their chil- Overall, 1.18 male births occurred for every as a main crop.