LA SAPE: TRACING THE HISTORY AND FUTURE OF THE CONGOS’ WELL-DRESSED MEN by HANNAH STEINKOPF-FRANK A THESIS Presented to the Department of International Studies and the Robert D. Clark Honors College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts or Science June, 2017 An Abstract of the Thesis of Hannah Steinkopf-Frank for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in the Department of International Studies to be taken June 2017 Title: La Sape: Tracing the History and Future of the Congos’ Well-dressed Men Approved: _ ____________________________________________ Leslie Steeves This thesis explores the past, current, and future significance of la Société des Ambianceurs et des Personnes Elégantes (la Sape), a social movement of well-dressed men that began in the two Congos in the 1980s. Sapeurs, members of la Sape, spend large sums of money on designer clothes, which they show off at social gatherings and use as a signifier of identity and community. Over the decades, la Sape has received more Western media attention, as it has increasingly become an international movement. In particular, Sapeur communities have developed within the larger African diaspora in France and Belgium, the former colonizers of the Republic of the Congo (ROC) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), respectively. The largest Sapeur communities are in Paris and Brussels, although smaller communities have popped up in other fashion capitals such as London. I conducted field research in Paris and Brussels in January 2017, interviewing a diverse group of Sapeurs and others connected to the movement. The Sapeurs were primarily from one of the two Congos, although a few were born in Europe. Coming from different generations, places, and backgrounds, they represent the diversity of la Sape. I also interviewed members of ii other dandy and fashion movements connected to la Sape. My field research responded to and informed the four central questions of this thesis. Why has la Sape proven to be such a long-lasting, international movement? La Sape is so resilient because of the historical significance of both clothing and patrilineal relationships in Central Africa. When Europeans brought Western garments to Central Africa, they were exploiting a preexisting fashion culture. La Sape grew largely from older members of the movement, both blood relatives and not, giving clothes to younger Congolese who would one day become Sapeurs. In addition, many of the issues that encouraged young Congolese to turn to fashion as a form of artistic resilience and identity building still exist today. Fashion continues to be a way to fulfill the dream of many Congolese to achieve the markers of a good life, which their countries do not allow them to pursue in a traditional manner due to continued political, social, and economic instability. How can la Sape be used to understand the effects of colonialism and the continued colonial legacy? More than a simple adoption of European clothes as a classic case of neocolonialism, la Sape is arguably a reflection of Congolese cultural values. While the Sapeur might wear a Western suit, it is to present an image of social prestige in his own community. As with the “retour” to Africa, it is arguably not important if the Sapeur is able to find work and financial stability in Europe as long as he is able to present an image of his accomplishments when he returns to Central Africa. Significantly, with increased globalization and the Americanization of culture, many Congolese — particularly youth — are now turning to the United States and American fashion and music as sources of inspiration. iii What does it mean to be a Sapeur in an increasingly globalized and connected world? Although older Sapeurs have preserved a more traditional understanding of the movement, younger members, particularly those born in Europe, have worked to expand la Sape and separate it from the negative stereotypes that highlight its darker side. As la Sape is increasingly represented in news media, advertisements, books, songs, and fashion collections, Sapeurs are using social media platforms to control how they as individuals and as a collective are represented. What is the future of la Sape? Although Sapeurs are more visual than ever with increased attention in European and international media, the future of the movement is unclear, especially with the death of many of its leaders. Many older Sapeurs are confident in la Sape’s prospects, although this might be more a reflection of their own desire for self-preservation than a sentiment based in reality. At least in Europe, many young Congolese are drawn to other fashion-related movements that are more inclusive of people from different backgrounds and put a larger emphasize on hard work and forming solidarity through clothes. Consequently, many Sapeurs believe the movement will only continue if it becomes an integrated part of the Congos’ political and economic systems through wider recognition of its cultural and historical significance. iv Acknowledgements I would like to thank Professors Leslie Steeves, Yvonne Braun, Barbara Mossberg, and Torsten Kjellstrand for helping me to fully examine this topic and consider the various perspectives and contexts related to la Sape. They have all guided me through this strenuous but rewarding process. In addition, I would like to thank those who connected me with Sapeurs in Europe, Remy Bazenguissa-Ganga, Hector Mediavilla, Katrien Pype, Pedro Monaville, and Gilles Remiche. Finally, I am grateful to my Sapeur informants who were so gracious with their time and opening up about their life experiences to me. I would also like to thank my parents, Jack Frank and Deborah Steinkopf- Frank, for their support and confidence in my successful completion of this requirement, in addition to fulfilling requirements in my major. v Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Method 8 Vocabulary 10 Theory and Literature Review 13 Thesis Organization 18 Chapter 2: From chiefs to servant boys: A brief history of fashion in precolonial 20 and colonial Congos Chapter 3: In "the capital of fashion," a movement is born 36 Chapter 4: "Paris is a big boy": Vision versus reality in a journey across continets 59 Chapter 5: In the media: Beer, music,and YouTube: How la Sape is being 98 recorded, insitutionalized, and preserved Chapter 6: The future of la Sape: A movement in decline or a catalyst for political, 133 economic, and societal change in the Congos? Chapter 7: Conclusion 161 Appendix Meet the Sapeurs 168 The 10 Commandments of La Sape 185 Bibliography 187 vi Chapter 1: Introduction From its disputed origin — whether it started in the Republic of the Congo (ROC), the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), or Europe — la Société des Ambianceurs et des Personnes Elégantes (la Sape) is a movement that to this day is defined by contradictions, legends of political resistance, and most importantly, the power of clothes in developing a personal and national identity. At its simplest, la Sape is a social movement of well-dressed men from the two Congos, known as Sapeurs. French and Belgian colonizers brought European clothes to Central Africa in the late 19th and 20th centuries, and a proto-Sapeur culture grew out of social clubs and cafes in Brazzaville, the capital of the ROC, after the country’s independence in the 1960s. Although, it was the young men who went to Paris in the 1980s who brought a love of fashion and European designer clothing back to Brazzaville, building a movement, la Sape, out of their collective hobby. Generally, it is agreed that the movement then spread to Kinshasa, the capital of the DRC, which is separated from Brazzaville only by the Congo River. The movement also developed in Congolese communities in both France and Belgium, largely because of the colonial connection. In Chapters Two and Three, I will briefly explain the history of European intervention in the Congos and the development of la Sape through exploring how and why it has proven to be such a long-lasting, international movement. Prior to colonialism, clothing had strong connotations of power, wealth, and social prestige in Central Africa, particularly among men and male rulers. European colonizers were able to exploit this sartorialist culture with an influx of “vêtements d'occasion” (“secondhand clothes”), particularly in Brazzaville and Kinshasa’s growing economic and political centers. Post-independence, la Sape experienced many state-induced setbacks, but the movement continued to flourish. This was largely through the support of musicians, including Papa Wemba, who championed la Sape in their art. Although fashion styles have changed and there have been moments of growth and decline, la Sape has never disappeared. Traditionally, fathers, uncles, and other Sapeur family members influenced Congolese youth in Europe and in Africa. One of the primary reasons la Sape has persisted is due to this family heritage and the strong culture of brotherhood in the movement. In more recent decades, one of the most impactful changes in la Sape has been the increased migration of Sapeurs, mostly to Europe, but to North America as well, which has created a bigger and more influential global Congolese diaspora. This will be discussed in Chapter Four. While it has become more difficult for many Congolese to move to France and Belgium as immigration laws have become stricter, push factors, particularly related to the two Congos’ turbulent sociopolitical situations, have changed little since independence. Both countries have experienced prolonged periods of civil and political unrest, which has resulted in underdeveloped economies and widespread poverty. While many Sapeurs do move to Europe for similar reasons as the general Congolese population — for social and economic opportunities as well as to avoid political persecution — Sapeurs also have unique motivations.