Holocene Archaeology and Ngarrindjeri Ruwe/Ruwar (Land, Body, Spirit): A Critical Indigenous Approach to Understanding the Lower Murray River, South Australia Christopher John Wilson, B.A. (Hons) Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Archaeology, School of Humanities, Faculty of Education, Humanities and Law at Flinders University, Adelaide April 2017 “For all Ngarrindjeri people… … past, present and future” This thesis is dedicated to my daughters Mikayla and Rylee In memory of a dear friend and colleague Naomi (Jane) Anderson-Sibsado & for Ngarrindjeri Elders who have passed during candidature i Inset Page (From left to right): Mikayla Durkin-Wilson and Rylee Durkin-Wilson on the mosaic tail of Kondoli (whale) at Victor Harbor, 2012 (Picture taken by Chris Wilson) ii TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................................... III LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................................ VII LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................................... X ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................................ XI CANDIDATE DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. XIII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................................................... XIV PUBLICATIONS INFORMING THIS DOCTORATE ............................................................................................ XVII NGARRINDJERI ELDERS (KORNIS) ............................................................................................................... XVIII NGARRINDJERI ELDERS (KORNIS) (CONTD) ................................................................................................ XIX NGARRINDJERI ELDERS (MEMENIS) ............................................................................................................... XX NGARRINDJERI COMMUNITY MEMBERS AND LEADERS (MEMINIS AND KORNIS) ............................... XXI NGARRINDJERI HERITAGE SPECIALISTS AND ADVISERS (NON-INDIGENOUS) .................................. XXII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................................................. XXIII GLOSSARY OF NGARRINDJERI WORDS AND PLACE NAMES .............................................................. XXVII 1 EXPERIENCES OF BEING NGARRINDJERI AND THE RESEARCH CONTEXT ...................................... 29 1.1 From the Beginning: Experiences of Being Ngarrindjeri .......................................................................... 29 1.1.1 Experiences in ‘Suburbia’ ................................................................................................................ 37 1.1.2 ‘Becoming’ a Ngarrindjeri Archaeologist? ........................................................................................ 39 1.2 Ngarrindjeri Regional Governance and Nation Philosophy ..................................................................... 42 1.3 Contextualising the Research Environment ............................................................................................ 42 1.4 Community Based Archaeology .............................................................................................................. 46 1.5 Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 47 2 ‘ARCHAEOLOGICAL’ INVESTIGATIONS OF THE LOWER MURRAY ...................................................... 50 2.1 An Archaeological History of Shell Midden Research ............................................................................. 50 2.2 Mid- to Late Holocene Chronologies and Debates in Australia ............................................................... 52 2.3 ‘Ethnography’ and Challanges with Archaeological Interpretations ......................................................... 54 2.4 Research Significance and Aims ............................................................................................................. 56 2.5 Research Questions ................................................................................................................................ 56 2.6 Overview of Thesis .................................................................................................................................. 59 3 NGARRINDJERI KNOWLEDGES, COLONIALISM & THE LOWER MURRAY .......................................... 61 3.1 Ngurunderi: Creation Ancestor of the Lower Murray ............................................................................... 61 3.2 Overview of European Colonisation ........................................................................................................ 68 3.3 Colonial (Mis)Representations of Ngarrindjeri Life Ways ........................................................................ 74 3.4 Ngarrindjeri Agency and Social Justice ................................................................................................... 76 iii 3.5 Regional Governance and Self-Determination ........................................................................................ 78 3.6 The Lower Murray Cultural and Archaeological Landscape .................................................................... 80 3.7 Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 84 4 ENVIRONMENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT ......................................................................... 85 4.1 Geographic Setting.................................................................................................................................. 85 4.2 Geology and Geomorphology ................................................................................................................. 87 4.3 Palaeoenvironmental Context ................................................................................................................. 88 4.4 Climate .................................................................................................................................................... 89 4.5 Hydrology ................................................................................................................................................ 89 4.6 Flora ........................................................................................................................................................ 92 4.7 Fauna ...................................................................................................................................................... 92 4.8 The Regional Archaeological Record ...................................................................................................... 95 4.8.1 Roonka ............................................................................................................................................ 97 4.8.2 Kangerunk ....................................................................................................................................... 98 4.8.3 Ngaut Ngaut (Devon Downs) and Tartanga .................................................................................... 99 4.8.4 Fromms Landing ........................................................................................................................... 100 4.8.5 Coorong and Wyrie Swamp .......................................................................................................... 100 4.8.6 Swan Reach .................................................................................................................................. 101 4.9 Previous Cultural Heritage and Archaeological Surveys ....................................................................... 102 4.9.1 Community Negotiations and Protocols ........................................................................................ 106 4.9.2 Liaising with Government and Heritage Agencies ......................................................................... 106 4.10 Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 107 5 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................................. 108 5.1 Profiling Indigenous People and Archaeological Training in Australia ................................................... 109 5.2 Indigenous Archaeologies and the Australian Context .......................................................................... 111 5.3 Indigenous Research and Academic Discourse .................................................................................... 117 5.4 Standpoint Theory and Indigenous Research ....................................................................................... 119 5.5 Post-Processual and Interpretative Archaeologies ...............................................................................